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POULTRY BOOK 



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PRAIRIE FARMER'S 
POULTRY BOOK 




You'll get 'em by the pailful if you handle your hens 
Osburn's way 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S 
POULTRY BOOK 



HOW TO MAKE THE FARM FLOCK PAY. FULL IN- 
FORMATION ABOUT FEEDING, MANAGEMENT, 
DISEASE, HOUSING, MARKETING AND 
OTHER INFORMATION THAT WILL 
HELP ANY FARMER TO IN- 
CREASE HIS POULTRY 
PROFITS 



By WILLIAM OSBURN 

Poultry Editor of Prairie Farmer 



This book contains the answer to 
hundreds of poultry problems. It is 
written by a practical farmer who has 
had a lifetime of experience with 
poultry. The methods he advises 
have been tested and found successful. 

"Double Your "Poultry "Profits 



First Edition 

'Price One 'Dollar — 'Postpaid 



CHICAGO 

PRAIRIE FARMER PUBLISHING COMPANY 

1922 



f 4-3*7 



Copyrighted, 1922, By 
PRAIRIE FARMER PUBLISHING CO. 

CHICAGO 



. K. DONNELLEY & SONS COMPANY 
CHICAGO 



MAR 1 7 1922 
g)C!.A659172 



DEDICATED TO FARMERS WIVES 

AND DAUGHTERS, WHOSE DILIGENCE AND 

SKILL IN HANDLING THE MANAGEMENT OF THE FARM 

FLOCK ARE RESPONSIBLE IN A LARGE MEASURE 

FOR THE MAGNITUDE OF THE 

POULTRY INDUSTRY 



W* wBKk 
■H 


[ 1 



Mr. Osburn at work on Prairie Farmer Poultry Book 



Preface 

THIS book is written to help farmers make more money 
from their poultry flocks. 

Success with poultry on the farm depends on intelligent 
care and feeding. Any farmer or farmer's wife, or farm boy 
or girl, who will study the methods described in this book, and 
follow them carefully, can make the farm poultry flock a 
highly profitable enterprise. We have endeavored not only 
to point out profitable methods, but also to indicate dangers 
and pitfalls to be avoided. 

Any branch of farming is always more interesting if we 
know the "why" of things. We have therefore devoted some 
space to a discussion of the scientific principles that lie back 
of successful poultry methods, in order that the reader may 
understand the wonderful process by which nature produces 
eggs and meat through the medium of the hen. 

The farm flock represents fully 80 per cent of the poultry 
industry. Ninety per cent of all farms produce poultry. The 
value of all chickens and eggs produced in 1919 was 
$1,047,989,919. These figures do not represent the full magni- 
tude of the industry, for they do not include fowls other than 
chickens, such as turkeys, ducks and geese, nor poultry 
produced on small estates. A safe estimate of the annual 
production of poultry and eggs in the United States is 
$1,500,000,000. 

For this large asset to the nation the farmer and his family 
deserve great credit. As the farmer himself is usually occu- 
pied in the larger and heavier tasks of the farm, the care of 
the poultry generally falls to the farmer's wife or upon the 
daughter or son, or possibly some elderly member of the 
household. This is possible because the task does not require 
heavy manual labor. Wherever the task falls it means 
constant attention to minute details and a high degree of 
knowledge and skill. To help solve some of the problems 
which will surely present themselves is our aim. 



Table of Contents 



CHAPTERS 

Preface vii 

I. The Farm Flock 1 

II. The Factory and Workmen 7 

III. The Raw Material 20 

IV. Feeding 34 

V. The Finished Product 54 

VI. Eggs and By-Products 70 

VII. The Puzzle of the Breeds 78 

VIII. The Breeding Problem . . 95 

IX. Mating and Culling 107 

X. The Poultry House .... 122 

XI. Incubation and Brooding 137 

XII. From Producer to Consumer 153 

XIII. Poultry Sanitation — Pests and Parasites 163 

XIV. Diseases and Remedies 175 

XV. The Poultry Account 194 

XVI. Sundry Topics 205 

Appendix 218 

Index 247 



List of Illustrations 



You'll Get 'em by the Pailful ii 

Osburn at Work on Poultry Book iv 

External Parts of Fowl . 8 

Diagram of Skeleton 10 

Diagram of Digestive System 14 

Diagram of Ovary 16 

Of Course They'll Lay 26 

Colony House 32-130-139-151 

Dinner Time in Poultry Yard 42-106 

A Good Day's Work 44 

Oats Sprouter 52 

What One Hen Did 53 

'Caponizing 57-58 

Diagram of Egg . 61 

Egg Types .62 

Egg Tester 64 

Osburn Feeding Turkeys 68 

Eggs from Hidden Nests 69 

Rhode Island Red Cockerel 80 

Barred Plymouth Rock Pullet . . .86 

Barred Plymouth Rock Cock 87 

Columbian Wyandotte Pullet 88 

Buff Orpington Hen 90 

White Leghorn Hen 91 

Emden Goose 93 

White Holland Turkey 94 

Half-Monitor Type-House 102-125 

Knock-Kneed Rooster 108 

Culling 112-114 

Trap Nests . '119 

ix 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Self-Feeder 120-215 

Floor Plan of Poultry House 123 

Elevation of Poultry House 124 

Semi-Gable Type of House .... 126 

Interior of Poultry House 128 

Osburn's Poultry House 129 

Nestbox Arrangements 131 

Brooder House 132 

Dropping Board 133 

Brood Coop 134-135-136-148-149 

A Good Hatch 141 

Osburn Taking Eggs to Town 159 

Toe-Mark Chart 162 

Scaly Leg 171 

Wryneck 172 

Ovaries 181 

Gape Worms 188 

Chicken Pox 189 

Roup 190 

Toulouse Geese 206 

Device to Keep Turkeys at Home 208 

Defective Combs 211 

Osburn and One of His Hens 217 

Market Charts 219-220 

Billy Esgar 231 

Verne Anderson's Poultry House 237 

Hunt's Poultry House 240 

Time Switch for Poultry House 245 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S 
POULTRY BOOK 



Chapter I 

The Farm Flock 

THERE is little danger of overestimating the importance 
of poultry culture. Compared with other farm interests 
it has earned a place of deserved recognition. This is proved 
by the fact that of the 6,448,336 farms in the United States 
5,800,000 are engaged in poultry production. And there are 
good reasons for this recognition. 

The flock furnishes a good percentage of the family 
dietary. It contributes something to every meal, food of high 
nutritive value. Probably 35 per cent of all poultry products 
is consumed on the farm. The remaining 65 per cent goes 
into the channels of trade to feed the world. The larger pro- 
portion is consumed locally, but an increasing annual amount 
is exported, thus adding to the wealth of the nation. It is 
evident therefore that the farm flock is of no insignificant 
value, not only as a source of food for the family but as a 
source of revenue. Sometimes this income furnishes the 
allowance for the farmer's wife ; sometimes it is sufficient to 
pay all the table expenses of the household. 

The farm flock contributes to other farm interests. Fowls 
destroy vast numbers of insect pests. It is estimated by the 
U. S. Department of Agriculture that the annual loss to the 
farmer by reason of insect pests is $1,555,000,000. The annual 
saving by birds is $444,000,000. Every agency that reduces 
this loss aids the farmer in his task of production. If hens are 
allowed to forage in the orchard they will check the ravages 
of curculios and moths ; chickens and turkeys in the meadow 
or cornfields destroy many larvae of harmful insects. 

The farm flock utilizes the waste, saving much that would 
otherwise be lost. Fowls are great foragers and gather much 
of their subsistence from vegetation, the seeds of noxious 

[1] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

weeds, from grain gleaned after harvest, and from waste grain 
in the feed-lots. These would be a total loss were it not for 
the farm flock. 

There is another consideration outside the commercial 
importance of the industry. It is the appeal to the aesthetic. 
What in nature is more beautiful than a bird? Blending 
colors, symmetry of shape, curved outlines and grace of 
carriage all appeal to the eye and, through the eye, to the 
nobler senses, thus contributing something to the joy of living 
and the development of character. 

In order to keep the farm flock at a point of maximum 
production there should be a program of action. Here is an 
outline of procedure : 

1. Keep a purebred flock. It will cost no more to feed a 
purebred than a mongrel. The mongrel will be neglected, but 
the purebred will command greater interest and receive better 
care and prove more productive. 

2. Make conditions favorable for the flock. This means 
regular care, a dry, well-ventilated building with an abundance 
of light, and cleanliness in everything — clean water and food in 
clean vessels for clean fowls in clean buildings upon clean 
premises. 

3. Select good foundation stock, strong in vitality and 
prepotency, and free from hereditary taint or physical de- 
formity, and follow a system of breeding that will perpetuate 
the good qualities and eliminate the weaknesses. 

4. Plan for early hatching. The early hatched pullet 
makes the early layer in the fall and the matured breeder in 
the spring. 

5. Eliminate the boarders. Every poultry breeder should 
qualify to do his own culling. This is especially important in 
the spring when the majority of the flock is coming into laying 
condition and in the fall when the "quitters" are easily de- 
tected. 

6. Adopt a system of feeding that will give results. This 
means a balanced ration in all seasons. It means food ele- 
ments which contribute to health, growth and high production. 
It means planning for green feed in winter by planting cab- 
bage, carrots, mangels, alsike or alfalfa in season. 

7. Make a study of enemies and diseases and conduct a 
vigorous campaign against them. Enormous losses are 
avoided by outwitting the enemies. The growing stock must 

[2] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

be protected. The first approach of disease should be noted 
by watching for abnormal conditions. If disease appears, sick 
fowls should be isolated promptly and dead fowls, as well as 
other dead animals on the premises, should be cremated with 
dispatch. 

8. Store eggs for fall and winter consumption. When 
prices are not remunerative, why should the poultry farmer 
sacrifice? He can store for better prices as well as the grain 
farmer. His product will be of better quality than eggs which 
go through the cold storage plants, because packed when 
perfectly fresh. 

9. Study the problem of marketing. Culling for market 
should begin early when prices are good. A broiler will some- 
times command a better price than the same fowl held over 
till the following spring. To market breeding stock and eggs 
successfully requires discreet advertising. 

10. Eliminate waste and all unnecessary expenses. This 
program may appear visionary because so few attain to its 
requirements. The ideal is important in any enterprise, for 
it is only by striving for an ideal that we reach any degree of 
excellence. To show how in a measure this program may be 
worked out in practice is our aim in future chapters of this 
book. 

Don't Neglect the Poultry 

Opportunity is at the door of every enterprise. Welcomed 
and seized she leads into fields of promise and reward ; 
neglected her invitations and counsels are in vain. Neglect 
spells loss. A beautiful damsel was encouraged by a good 
genius to pass through a cornfield once, and only once. She 
was urged to pluck an ear, large and beautiful, for according 
to its size and beauty would be its value to her. She passed 
many ears large, ripe and beautiful, but neglected to pluck, 
hoping to find one yet more beautiful. As the day declined she 
reached a portion of the field where the stalks were thin and 
barren. And, at last, as the evening closed upon her she found 
herself at the end of the field without having plucked an ear of 
any kind. Opportunity had flown and with it the promised 
reward. 

Neglect is the cause of nearly all our disappointments in 
poultry raising; it is responsible for nearly all the leaks and 

[3] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

iosses which end in failures. Watch the following common 
leaks and losses that often keep farm flocks from being profit- 
able : 

Loss in purchasing. Neglect to secure good foundation 
stock is a prime cause of failure. To make a beginning with 
weaklings where physical vigor has been undermined with 
disease is equivalent to making no beginning at all. It would 
be better to pay $100 if necessary for a pen of five birds, 
physically sound, and that meet standard requirements, and 
to build upon this foundation, than to spend the same money 
for a hundred specimens devoid of vigor and representing care- 
less breeding. 

The same principle applies to the purchase of equipment 
and feeds and the construction of buildings. It is true that 
many poultry appliances can be made at home and will give 
good service, but the things that must be purchased should 
have quality and durability. Moldy feeds may be cheap but 
in the end they will mean the loss of the flock, or, at least, the 
loss of profits. The poultry building need not be expensive 
but should be well built, sanitary and convenient. 

Loss from improper feeding. Excessive feeding may cause 
intestinal trouble, liver disease or apoplexy, resulting in the 
loss of many fowls. The lack of a well-balanced ration means 
a loss in egg production and retarded growth of the edible 
carcass, and these are the main sources of income. Wasteful 
feeding often cuts a hole in the profits. 

Loss from careless handling of eggs. Let us follow an egg 
from producer to consumer. It may be cracked at the outset 
because the nest is not provided with suitable material. It 
may be overheated, causing incubation and subsequent de- 
composition. It may be frozen, cracking the shell and produc- 
ing a so-called leaker. It may be rough handled, breaking up 
the contents, producing a watery consistency. The same de- 
terioration may happen in the hands of the country merchant 
or in transportation to the wholesaler. If it goes to cold 
storage it may be kept in storage too long and become stale. 
When it goes to the retailer it still further may be subjected to 
too much cold or heat or dampness or rough handling result- 
ing in more deterioration. 

On the table of the consumer it may have a small per- 
centage of the value it had when fresh laid on the farm. The 
losses on a 30 dozen case of eggs, due to heat and dampness, 

[4] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

run from five cents to $3 ; due to freezing, from 10 cents to 60 
cents per case ; due to rough handling, from 5 cents to 25 cents. 
This was the estimate of the food administration during the 
world war. From producer to consumer the total annual loss 
of the egg crop is estimated by the government at $50,000,000. 

Leaks due to incorrect incubation. Many thousand of eggs 
should never go to the sitting hen or incubator, because de- 
fective in size, shape and contents. Many contain weak germs 
because of weak foundation stock or improper feeding. Many 
are destroyed by neglect of the hen or careless handling. A 
good average hatch is counted at 50 per cent of the eggs set. 
Here is a 50 per cent loss that to large extent can be eliminated 
by scientific breeding and more careful management. 

Losses due to enemies. Their name is legion. They popu- 
late air and water, they teem in untold millions in the soil, they 
congregate upon the surface of the earth in great armies of 
destruction; they stand at the gateways of life and gloat over 
their prospective victims. 

"A constant watch they keep; 
They never slumber, never sleep, 
Lest they should lose their prey." 

The baby chick, emerging from its shell, looks out upon a 
world of living things in innocence, but is marked for de- 
struction, for there is a constant warfare of life upon life. 

It is the aim of every poultry producer to bring to maturity 
not less than 50 per cent of the chicks hatched. This goal is 
seldom reached. Here is a 50 per cent loss that may be averted 
in large measure by eternal vigilance and persistent warfare 
against the foe's of the flock. 

Magnitude of Industry- 
Here are some figures showing the magnitude of the 
poultry industry. The following table shows the number of 
fowls of all kinds on farms, January 1, 1920, also an estimate 
of all fowls not on farms, but on the back lots of towns and 
cities and on small estates of less than five acres. It also, 
shows the value of these fowls and the value of all fowls and 
eggs produced in 1919. As the government does not collect 
statistics of poultry on back lots and small estates, the figures 
given are merely estimates and are indicated by the figures in 
black face. 

[5] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 
Table No. 1. — Poultry in United States. 



Items 
Jan. 1, 1920 



Total number 
on farms and 
small estates 



Value of poultry 
on farms and 
small estates 



Value of fowls and 

eggs produced — 

1919 



Chickens 

Turkeys 

Ducks 

Geese 

Guinea Fowls . . 

Other Fowls 

On small estates. 



359,537,385 
3,627,028 
2,817,624 
2,939,203 
2,410,421 
1,493,861 
93,206,316 



$349,508,867 | $1,047,989,919 



12,904,989 

3,373,966 

5,428,806 

1,582,313 

595,116 

73,970,040 



38,714,967 

10,121,898 

16,286,418 

4,746,939 

1,758,348 

221,910,120 



Totals, all fowls | 466,031,838 | $447,364,097 | $1,341,528,609 

The number of chickens produced in 1919 was 473,923,935 
and the number of eggs produced in that year was 1,656,267,200 
dozens. In 1909 the Secretary of Agriculture estimated the 
annual income from poultry products at $750,000,000, and that 
was equal to the combined value of all the gold, silver, iron, 
and coal mined in that year. According to the table given 
above the total value of all poultry products in 1919 is esti- 
mated at $1,340,000,000. This is equal to all the oats, barley, 
rye, buckwheat, flax, and rice produced in that year. This 
large income is a great asset to the nation for which the farmer 
receives due credit and full measure of reward. 

The value of the industry, measured in money, is not the 
highest consideration. The food value to the nation is even 
more important. Consider the quality of the food product. 
What is more appetizing and nutritious than 1 the flesh of fowl? 
And the egg, the universal article of diet, finding its way into 
every home, is the great tissue builder. It supplies the needs 
of the brain worker as well as the manual laborer. It furnishes 
the vitamines so much needed by growing children — the 
growth principles so essential to health and physical develop- 
ment. 

If all the farms should cease in poultry production, or if for 
any cause all the hens should cease to lay, it would be a 
national calamity. 



[6] 



Chapter II 

The Factory and Workmen 

POULTRY production may be likened to the operation of 
a great manufacturing concern in which there are the 
factory, the workmen, the raw material and the finished 
product. The factory is represented by the living bird, the 
workmen are energized cells and tissues of its organism, the 
raw material is the food and other materials which are trans- 
formed into poultry products, and the finished product is 
represented in flesh, eggs and feathers. 

The Factory 

Our first concern is a study of the factory, its systems of 
machinery and the work to be accomplished by each. The 
common hen is our illustration for she is queen of the poultry 
world. Around her revolve the chief interests of economic 
importance. 

EXTERNAL PARTS. The external structures of a fowl are: 

1. Head, consisting of the beak, comb, face, eyes, ears, ear-lobes 
and wattles. 

2. Beak, consisting of upper and lower mandibles. 

3. Nostrils, located in the upper mandible. 

4. Comb, which may be single, rose, pea, V-shaped or strawberry. 

5. Face, naked side of head. 

6. Eyes, the color being determined by the iris. 

7. Wattles, pendulous membranes beneath the lower mandible. 

8. Ear, behind the eye and covered with tuft of feathers. 

9. Neck, consisting of front and cape. The cape is called the hackle 
in the male and comprises the feathers of lower neck resting upon the 
shoulders. 

10. Breast, feathers covering breast bone. 

11. Shoulder, feathers covering base of wing. 

12. Wing-bow, feathers covering side of wing. 

13. Secondaries, or wing-bay, large wing shafts above the primaries. 

14. Primaries, lower flight feathers. 

15. Primary coverts, smaller feathers covering flights. 

16. Secondary coverts, covering base of secondaries. 

17. Back and sweep, the latter term applying to feathers over base 
of tail, called the saddle in the male. 

18. Cushion, feathers on each side of base of tail. 

[7) 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 



POMTp 

BLADE. MLS^S 



WATTLE? 







CLflPT -Vt' 



19. Saddle, a term applied to flowing feathers over base of tail in male. 

20. Tail, including the main tail feathers and the sickles, the long 
curved feathers covering the tail shafts. 

21. Tail coverts. 

22. The fluff, region below the vent. 

23. Body, all between back and sternum. 

24. Thigh, the leg above the shank. 

25. Hock, knee joint, or joint between shank and thigh. 

26. Shank, between hock and toes. 

27. Spur, a horny growth on side of shank. 

28. Feet, including ball of foot, toes and nails. 

29. Toes, usually four, may be five in number, and may be feathered 
or naked. 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

A knowledge of all these sections of a fowl is necessary to 
comprehend the descriptions of purebred specimens. They 
perform very important functions and are designed for pro- 
tection, locomotion, obtaining food, etc. 

Internal Systems and Structures 

In a study of the internal structures of a hen we find nine 
important systems of organs, each having important work to 
accomplish. They are : Skeleton, respiratory, circulatory, di- 
gestive, excretory, reproductive, muscular, nervous, and tegu- 
mentary. 

The Skeleton 

The skeleton is the bony framework *of the body. A bone 
consists of the periosteum, the white fibrous covering that 
supplies nourishment ; bone-proper, consisting of the carbon- 
ate of lime and phosphate of lime ; and the marrow, or central 
soft tissue, whose chief work is to help in making red blood 
cells. 

The parts of the skeleton are : 

SKULL: 

Mandibles, upper and lower jaws. 
Cranium, bony box containing the brain. 

NECK: 

13 vertebrae, the one next the cranium being called the atlas. 

TRUNK: 

Dorsum, or back, comprising the seven thoracic vertebrae to 
which the seven pairs of ribs are attached. 

Sacrum, a term used to comprise all the vertebrae between the 
thoracic and the caudal vertebrae. They are fused together so as 
to form one solid structure. 

Caudal Vertebrae, six in number, which support the structures 
of the tail. 

Pelvis, comprising three distinct bones on each side, known as 
the ilium, ischium and pubis. These form a protection for the kid- 
neys and other viscera. They unite to form a socket for the 
femur, and they are fused to the sacrum so as to form a contin- 
uous arch. The points of the pubis, which can be located just 
below and on each side of the vent are known as the pubic bones, 
or so-called "lay-bones." 

Shoulder circle, comprising: 
Scapula, or shoulder blade. 

Caracoids, strong bones extending from sternum to 
shoulder. They form a point of attachment for the humerus 
and the hold the sternum and shoulders apart. 

[9] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 



The Skeleton 
Intermaxillary 
Lower mandible 
Nasal 

External nares 
Frontal 
Eye socket 
Cranium 
Quadrate 

Interorbital foramen 
Cervical vertebrae 
Dorsal vertebrae 
Sacral vertebra 
Lumbar vertebrae 
Caudal vertebrae 
Anterior process of 

same 
Sternum 
Body of same 
Spine of same 
Clavicle 




20 Costal 

same 

21 Styloid process 

same 

22 External 

same 

23 Coracoid 

24 Scapula 

25 Humerus 

26 Radius 

27 Ulna 
Carpals 

29 Metacarpals 

30 Thumb 

31 Third finger 

32 Middle nnger 

33 Ribs 

34 Uncinate processes 

35 Sternal ribs 

36 Ilium 

37 Acetabulum 

38 Pubis 

39 Ischium 

40 Femur 

41 Patella 

42 Fibula 

43 Tibia 

44 Calcaneum 

45 Tarsals 

46 Metatarsal 

47 Spur core 
48-51 Toes 



Clavicles, one on each side, which unite to form the so- 
called "wish-bone," or "merry-thought." 

Sternum, or breast bone, a boat-shaped structure, forming the 
floor of the vital organs. The sharp, bony edge of the sternum on 
the lower side is known as the keel, and to this the muscles of the 
breast are attached. 

[10] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

LIMBS: 
Wings: 

Humerus, or upper arm, attached to the shoulder girdle. 
Fore-arm, comprising ulna and radius. 
Hand, comprising two small bones united at their ends. 
Fingers, the thumb being attached to the upper end of arm 
and the two remaining fingers to the lower end. 
Legs : 

Femur, or thigh-bone, attached to the pelvis. 
Lower leg, consisting of the tibia and fibula, the former, large, 
and the latter small and splint like. 

Shank, or tarso-metarsus, attached to the lower leg at the 
knee joint, or hock, and bearing the spur. 
Toes: 

Inner toe, or hind toe, which has two joints. 
Second toe, or inner, front toe, having three joints. 
Middle front toe, having four joints. 
Outer front toe, which has five joints. 
A knowledge of the structures of the skeleton will be of value in 
mating and culling and in preparing the carcass for market as well as 
dissecting for table use. 

The Respiratory System 

Respiration in fowls includes the acts of receiving air into 
the lungs (inspiration) and expelling air from the same (ex- 
piration). These processes are accomplished by muscular 
action, raising and lowering the sternum. By the respiratory 
system oxygen is conveyed to the blood and vapor of water 
and waste matter thrown off from the body. As the fowl has 
no sweat glands to eliminate vapor of water and certain waste 
matter which accumulates in the blood by the process of 
oxidation, the respiratory system accomplishes this work to 
large extent. Respiration in man is 18 times per minute, but 
in the fowl it is more rapid, or 33 times per minute. 

The organs and functions of the respiratory system are : 

1. Nostrils, through which the air is conveyed to the pharynx. 

2. Pharynx, or throat. 

3. Larynx, the enlarged cartilaginous, or gristly, opening into the 
windpipe, or trachea. It modifies the voice, which is produced at the 
lower end of the trachea. 

4. Trachea, or windpipe, the cartilaginous tube formed by rings of 
gristle which conveys the air to the lungs. 

5. The bronchi, or bronchial tubes, branch from the trachea and 
enter the lungs. Some pass through the lungs into the large air sacs 
in the body. Some have blind endings. The small tubes which branch 
from the bronchi are lined with blood vessels which absorb oxygen. 

6. Air sacs, spaces outside of the lungs which receive the air from 
the bronchial tubes. They are large and lined with thin membranes 

[11] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

which contain blood vessels through the walls of which oxygen is taken 
up. Air spaces also occur in the feathers, bones, and elsewhere, making 
the bird's body light and buoyant. 

A knowledge of the respiratory system is important on 
account of its bearing upon the hygienic care of the flock 
and a comprehension of the diseases which attack its organs. 
The more common diseases of the respiratory system are : 
Catarrh, roup, diptheria, gapes, pharyngitis, bronchitis, asper- 
gillosis, inflammation of lungs and, occasionally, tuberculosis. 

Circulatory System 

There are two systems of circulation, the blood vessels and 
the lymphatics. 

Blood circulation. The blood is the red fluid which is the 
carrier of the food elements to the cells and tissues of the body 
for their repair and upbuilding and of the waste matter to the 
lungs and kidneys to be eliminated. About 90 per cent of the 
blood is water; the remaining portion comprises the corpuscles 
and the plasma. 

The corpuscles are red and white. The red corpuscles in a 
fowl are nucleated, elliptical discs ; in human blood they are 
circular discs, non-nucleated, and smaller. The color of the 
red corpuscle is due to the haemoglobin, containing iron and 
manganese. The affinity of the haemoglobin for oxygen re- 
sults in oxyhemoglobin, and this becomes the carrier of 
oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body. The white 
corpuscles are nucleated and consist of living protoplasm, 
exhibiting amoeboid movements. They perform important 
functions, destroying disease germs, healing wounds and 
building up tissues. 

The organs of circulation are the heart, arteries, capillaries 
and veins. The contraction of the heart forces the arterial, 
bright red blood coming from the lungs through the arteries 
to the capillaries, and the veins collect the venous, dark red 
blood from the capillaries and convey it back to the heart, 
whence it is forced to the lungs to be again charged with 
oxygen and returned to the heart for another journey. The 
heart is a muscular organ with four cavities — two auricles and 
two ventricles. The pulsation of the heart is more rapid than 
in other animals, hence oxidation in the lungs and capillaries 
is undoubtedly more rapid and the blood is, therefore, hotter. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

A temperature test of a number of chickens showed a 
temperature of 101°. The average for man is 98.6°. In a 
chicken the heart beat averages 150 per minute; in man it is 
72 per minute. This explains why respiration is more rapid in 
fowls than in many other animals and why they soon get out of 
condition if kept in stuffy, ill-ventilated quarters. The average 
respiration per minute of a number of chickens was found to 
be 33. Human respiration averages about 16 times per minute. 
Several diseases attack the circulatory system of fowls and 
the blood, such as dropsy, inflammation and enlargement of the 
heart; thrombosis; cholera; anaemia, infectious leukaemia; and 
sleeping disease. 

The lymph is a colorless fluid of value to the blood and 
originates in the region of the capillaries, being an exudate 
of serum from the blood into the intercellular spaces. It is 
collected in very small tubes (lymph capillaries) which convey 
it to two main vessels, one on each side of the spine, thence 
upward to the base of the neck, where it is emptied into the 
general circulation. The lymph vessels in the intestines are 
called lacteals on account of the whitish color of the lymph 
fluid, known as chyle. 

The Digestive System 

The digestive system, as its name suggests, receives the 
crude food, grinds it, and prepares it for absorption into the 
blood and for assimilation. It is the great workshop of the 
factory, working over the raw material for replenishing old 
cells and for the manufacture of new. 

The organs of the digestive system are : 

1. Pharynx, or throat, which receives the food from the beak and 
mouth and forces it into the oesophagus. 

2. CEsophagus, or gullet, an elongate tube capable of vermicular 
muscular action by which the food is forced downward into the crop. 

3. Crop, a dilation of the oesophagus, where the food is softened 
and held in reserve for the further processes of digestion. 

4. Proventriculus, or stomach. This is the enlarged pouch to which 
the food passes from the crop. It is provided with glands which secrete 
the gastric juice, a digestive fluid whose action is to change the food 
into a condition known as chyme. 

5. Gizzard, a receptacle of the food as it passes from the prove n- 
triculus. The gizzard is provided with a tough inner membrane and 
powerful muscular walls which assist in grinding the food and mixing 
it with the digestive fluid, so that before leaving it is reduced to' a 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 



pasty mass. The gizzard there- 
fore, is the organ of mastication, 
and the grit which it contains 
serves as teeth. 

6. Duodenum, the upper intes- 
tine. It forms a curve in the shape 
of the letter U, between the arms 
of which lies the pancreas. The 
food passes from the gizzard to 
the duodenum where it mixes with 
the fluid from the sweetbread and 
the bile from the liver. These 
fluids, acting with the intestinal 
juices, change the fatty foods into 
a condition known as chyle. The 
chyle is absorbed by the lacteals, 
carried by the lymphatic system to 
the base of the neck and emptied 
into the general circulation. Other 
portions of the food are absorbed 
by the capillaries and carried by 
the portal circulation to the liver, 
there to undergo certain changes 
preparatory to assimilation. Pro- 
tein is changed to peptone by the 
pepsin of the gastric juice, the 
peptone being soluble and capable 
of absorption through the intes- 
tinal walls into the circulation; 
carbohydrates, consisting of sugar 
J J and starches, are changed into glu- 

*s cose, which is also soluble and ca- 

pable of absorption. 

• 7. Small intestine, or ileum, 
which receives the food from the 
duodenum. It lies in folds and 
convolutions which are connected 
and held together by a thin mem- 
brane known as the mesentery. 
At the lower end of the small in- 
testine two branches are thrown 
off, known as ceca. These extend forward, parallel with each other, 
and are closed at their upper extremities, hence are called blind pouches. 
The functions of the small intestine are to carry on the work of digestion 
and complete the work of absorption. To this end it secretes a digestive 
fluid, known as the intestinal juice, and is covered with elevations known 
as villi to increase the absorbing surface. 

8. Ceca. 

9. Large intestine, or colon, which begins where the ceca branch off 
and is a straight tube to the cloaca. Its function is to convey the 
undigested portions of the food, or fecal matter, to the cloaca. 




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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

10. Cloaca, an enlarged pouch at the end of the large intestine. 
This receives the waste matter from the raw material and urates from 
the kidneys and discharges them through the vent. 

11. Vent. 

12. Pancreas, as stated, lies in the fold of the duodenum. It secretes 
the pancreatic juice, a digestive fluid which has three ferments, each of 
which performs an important office in digestion. The trypsin changes 
the albumin to peptone, the amylopsin changes starch to glucose, and 
the steapsin acts upon the fat to emulsify it. 

13. Unabsorbed yolk. 

Other digestive organs are : 

The liver, a large, soft, glandular organ lying between the heart 
and gizzard. It is a very important organ of digestion. It acts upon 
the peptone which comes to it from the intestines through the portal 
circulation. The peptone is converted back to albumin and thus pre- 
pared to become a constituent part of the blood and ready for assimila- 
tion by the cells throughout the body. The liver also changes the 
glucose into glycogen, which is taken up by the blood and is oxidized 
as it is carried onward in the circulation, thus giving heat and energy 
to the body. The liver also performs an important function in destroy- 
ing disease germs and eliminating poisons which may come to it through 
the portal circulation. The liver secretes the bile, which is collected 
in a sac known as the gall sac, whence it is conveyed by the bile duct 
to the duodenum. The bile plays an important role in digestion, for 
it not only lubricates the walls of the intestine but aids the other di- 
gestive fluids in performing their work. 

Thus we see that the digestive system is a marvelous piece 
of machinery. It is concerned with softening, grinding, dis- 
solving, and digesting by certain chemical changes, absorbing 
and assimilating the raw material. A knowledge of its organs, 
their mode of work, and their functions, is very vital to the 
poultry keeper. If these organs function properly, are provided 
with the elements needed for the up-building of the body, as 
well as their own recuperation, all goes well — the fowl is 
healthy and production continues. Otherwise there are dis- 
turbances throughout the factory, and fatal diseases may 
follow. The whole problem of feeding and maintaining health 
in the flock hangs very largely upon this knowledge. 



The Reproductive System 

This system is concerned in the perpetuation of the species. 
It produces the egg which contains the living primordial cell 
from which the new individual is to spring. 

The organs of the reproductive system are the ovary, 
oviduct and the cloaca. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 




Egg organs showing ovary, oviduct and 
cloaca. The expanded opening into the ovi- 
duct is the infundibulum. 



The ovary comprises a cluster of spherical bodies, oocytes, which lie 
to the left side of the back, just beneath the spine. These bodies are at 
first but microscopic points, but they are living, protoplasmic cells. 
They develop into the yolks and are surrounded by a delicate membrane 
known as the ovisac, or follicle. When the yolk becomes ripe, the 
follicle cleaves and allows the yolk to escape into the oviduct. 

The oviduct is a convoluted tube, about 18 inches in length. The 
funnel-like mouth of the oviduct is called the infundibulum. As the 
yolk is conveyed downward through the oviduct it receives, in the upper 
portion, the albumen; in the central portion the membranes surrounding 
the egg are formed; and, in the lower end, lime is secreted to form 
the shell. Soon after the completed egg passes into the cloaca it is 
covered with a mucous deposit, or film, which serves to prevent the 
evaporation of the egg contents and also, in some degree, prevents the 
access of germs and harmful substances from without. The muscular 
walls of the cloaca are used to expel the egg. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 
Male Reproductive Organs 

The principal male organs concerned in reproduction are 
the testes and the seminal vesicles. 

The testes lie in the same relative position as the ovary in 
the female and are opposite the last two ribs on each side. 
They produce the semen, which consists of the seminal fluid 
and the spermatazoa, or sperm cells. The seminal vesicles are 
the tubes that convey the semen to the cloaca. The sperm 
cells are living cells, oblong in shape, and are provided with 
whip-like flagellar, or lashes, by which they are able to swim 
from place to place. 

The reproductive organs, especially those of the female, 
are subject to a number of abnormalities and diseases, which 
will be considered in the treatment of diseases. A knowledge 
of these organs and their workings has a very practical bearing 
on the management of the flock. 

The Nervous System 

There are two systems of nerves in a fowl, the cerebro- 
spinal and the sympathetic. 

The cerebrospinal system comprises the brain, spinal cord and 
motory and sensory nerves. This system is the medium of such mental 
operations as the bird possesses and presides over the senses. The 
senses of sight and hearing are very acute with fowls, much more so 
than with human beings. The senses of taste, smell and touch are 
much more limited. 

The sympathetic system consists of a series of ganglia with radiating 
nerves and it is connected up very intimately with the cerebro-spinal 
system, and reacts on the digestive, respiratory, circulatory, and repro- 
ductive systems. 

The operation of every piece of machinery in the factory 
depends upon the stimulation of the nerves. They are not 
often affected, but such diseases as apoplexy and epilepsy 
occur occasionally. Sometimes the nervous system is attacked 
by worms and other parasites which produce peculiar dis- 
orders, probably due to malnutrition caused by the parasites, 
or to toxic poisoning. 

Other Organs and Tissues 

The spleen. This is a small, dark red organ which lies above the 
liver and is attached to the proventriculus. It is not provided with a 
system of blood vessels and capillaries as in other organs. It is not a 
digestive organ but is considered the factory of the red blood corpuscles, 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

for the blood, after passing through it, is richer in these elements than 
when it entered. Red corpuscles are also manufactured in the red 
marrow of the bones. 

The muscular system. Muscles by their contraction and relaxation 
control the motions of the body. They are composed of fibers, which 
are striated in the case of voluntary muscles and non-striated, or smooth, 
in all involuntary muscles except the oesophagus and heart. The peris- 
taltic movements of the alimentary tract, the pulsation of the heart, and 
the motions of swimming, flying and walking all depend upon this won- 
derful system of muscles. It is estimated that there are 12,000 muscles 
in a goose, including muscles that control the movements of the feathers. 

The excretory system. Excretion is accomplished by the lungs, in- 
testines and kidneys. The uric acid is eliminated from the blood by 
the kidneys in the form of urates. These are semi-solid and are con- 
veyed to the cloaca by the urinary tubules. The urates are excreted 
with the droppings, and can be observed as a white layer constituting 
about one-third of the excreta. The kidneys are located in the back in 
the cavities of the sacral region and can be recognized as reddish, gran- 
ular masses. They often become diseased, and their failure to function 
results in such serious disorders as gout, rheumatism and ursemic 
poisoning. 

Tegumentary System, or Skin. The skin is the outer covering of 
the body consisting of several layers of cells which serve as a protec- 
tion to the bird. The appendages of the skin, such as feathers, spurs 
and nails are modified scales. The continuation of the skin within the 
body is known as the mucous membrane. 

A Wonderful Machine 

We have considered the wonderful machinery of the hen's 
organism. Every system of its machinery has its special 
organs and every organ has its special work to perform. It is 
only when all these parts work in harmony that there can be 
a healthy and productive fowl. 

If by any accident or disease any organ is impaired or put 
out of action it may seriously affect the working of the whole 
factory and limit, if not totally curtail, the output of finished 
products. The importance of understanding these structures 
is very evident. 

A Practical Lesson 

To show how this knowledge is of practical application in 
the care of poultry, one illustration is given. Protein is 
recognized as a very necessary constituent of the food. This 
nitrogenous food is acted upon by the digestive fluids and 
changed into peptone. Why? Because peptone is soluble and 
readily transfuses through the walls of the intestines. But 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

peptone is a poison to the system, therefore it is carried by the 
portal circulation to the liver, which has the power to change 
it to albumin, which is at once assimilated by the blood, and 
this carries it to the cells to be used by them in building 
tissues. 

If there is an excess of protein taken in the food and an 
excess of peptone formed, then the liver is overworked. Some 
of the peptone may go into the circulation to poison the 
system. The liver becomes congested and there may follow 
a train of liver diseases and gout or rheumatism, causing the 
loss of the fowl. Further, uric acid is a nitrogenous compound 
and is produced in excessive quantity when there is an excess 
of protein in the food, as often happens in the liberal use of 
tankage. 

As the uric acid is eliminated by the kidneys, they are 
overworked with resulting congestion and disease. Thus we 
learn the importance of a balanced ration in which there is a 
due proportion of protein and carbohydrate. Many illustra- 
tions of this nature may be drawn from the digestive system 
alone. 

The Workmen 

What are the workmen in the great factory? It is true 
that an organ of the animal body may function as a unit to 
perform a definite work, as, for example, the eye performs the 
function of sight; but the eye is made up of tissues, such as 
epithelial, muscular, connective and nervous, and each of these 
has a definite work to do. The tissues also are made up of cells 
and each cell plays a part in accomplishing the desired end. If 
the cells should break down there would be failure all along 
the line. The cells, therefore, are the real workers, and their 
functioning makes possible the organism, for cells make 
tissues, tissues make organs, and organs make up the 
organism, or living bird. The cell is the working unit, just as 
is the individual in the industrial concern. 



[19] 



Chapter III 

The Raw Material 

FOOD is any substance which taken into the animal 
organism contributes to its growth and maintenance. 
Food is fuel for the engine and raw material for the factory. 
The term "feed" has a similar scope but is applied more par- 
ticularly to animals, not to man. The term feed may also 
apply to a definite portion of food, as a feed of corn or oats. 

A ration is a definite combination of foods or feeds. 

A balanced ration is one prepared to meet the full needs of 
the animal organism. The ration to be used depends upon the 
end desired and the environment of the flock. The ration in 
summer with free range should be quite different from that of 
winter in confinement. The ration to force egg production 
would differ somewhat from a fattening ration. The ration 
during the moulting season should be adapted to the needs of 
the fowl in growing new feathers. The baby chick ration 
should meet the demands of the growing body. 

Available Poultry Feeds 

Wheat is the most desirable of all grains for poultry. It is 
more nearly a balanced ration than any other grain. It is free 
from an indigestible hull. As a feed for growing chicks and 
laying hens it is of great value. Even though at times ex- 
pensive, the results obtained warrant its use. 

Corn is rich in carbohydrate and, therefore, is an excellent 
winter feed. Chickens will eat it in preference to any other 
grain. It is not a balanced ration and, if fed alone, will prove 
disappointing unless the fowls have free range and have 
opportunity to secure green feed and insects. It is valuable 
as a fattening ration and as a part of developing and laying 
rations. 

Oats make a very valuable feed for poultry, but on account 

of the thick hull with its indigestible crude fiber it is not 

relished like corn and wheat. It is equal to wheat in protein 

content and about equal to corn in fat. Its nitrogen-free ex- 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

tract is somewhat less than either corn or wheat. Its ash 
content surpasses both of these grains. The hull is often 
provided with sharp beards which irritate the digestive tract 
and sometimes cause serious trouble. 

Clipped oats are free from these objections and, where 
practical, should be used in the grain ration. Hulled oats 
would be even better. They can be obtained at the mills in 
500 pound lots at reasonable prices. Whole oats should con- 
stitute about one-fifth of the grain ration. If fed in the same 
amount as wheat or corn much of it will be left in the litter 
to become contaminated and moldy and thus the cause of 
disease in the flock. Ground oats make a valuable addition to 
the dry mash. The hulls are objectionable, but the mash is 
generally picked over and the hulls discarded by the fowls, so 
that this objection is not so serious. Only heavy oats with 
thin hulls should be used. Light oats with thick hulls will be 
rejected by the fowls unless they are on a starvation diet. 
Scalded and sprouted oats are desirable forms in which to feed 
this grain. 

Rye is not relished by poultry nor do they seem to thrive 
upon it. The ergot of rye is a dangerous poison. 

Barley is a good substitute for corn, having about the same 
composition. It may be fed with corn to give variety. The 
hull is objectionable. 

Buckwheat has a thick, indigestible hull and otherwise is 
objectionable. A small quantity in the grain ration will add 
variety, but otherwise is of little value. 

Milo maize, kaffir corn, sorghum seed, etc., are good sub- 
stitutes for indian corn and are relished by the flock. 

Millet seed adds variety when thrown in the litter with 
other grains and stimulates exercise, but it is indigestible and 
even injurious to growing chicks. 

Ingredients for the Dry Mash 

Bran is the outer layer of the wheat kernel and is rich in 
ash, protein, and fat. It furnishes a narrow ration on account 
of its comparatively small amount of carbohydrate. The main 
objection to bran is its crude fiber which is 9 per cent of its 
composition. This objection disappears when it is combined 
with meals having a limited amount of crude fiber. On ac- 
count of its bulky nature it is valuable to mix with the denser 
meals, and on account of its coarse nature it has a stimulating 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

effect on the mucous membrane and is counted slightly lax- 
ative. 

Wheat middlings are produced from the layer of the wheat 
kernel next to the bran. They are richer in carbohydrates 
than bran and contain less ash and crude fiber. 

Corn meal is ground corn and is of the same composition 
as whole corn. Gluten meal is the portion of the kernel just 
under the hull. Gluten feed consists of the corn bran and 
gluten meal mixed. Corn bran is the ground hulls. 

Ground oats are whole oats ground fine. They contain the 
hulls and should therefore be made of heavy oats with thin 
hulls. Oat middlings, or oat flour, comprise the ground 
kernels after the hulls are removed. Oat meal, or rolled oats, 
is the hulled oats rolled out and prepared for human con- 
sumption. 

Linseed meal is made from flaxseed. It has high percent- 
ages of protein and fat and is a valuable feed for poultry. On 
account of its very laxative nature it should be fed in limited 
quantities. About 5 per cent in the mash ration will be found 
advantageous. It is especially valuable in stimulating the 
growth of feathers. 

Animal Feeds for the Mash 

Meals of animal origin are of great value in stimulating 
egg-production. They promote growth in young stock and 
help adult fowls to lay on flesh. Among those more commonly 
used are the following: 

Meat scrap contains about 50 per cent protein. It consists 
of meat trimmings, steam-cooked and pressed to sterilize and 
remove fat, and then ground. Meat crisps are made from lean 
meat and contain 75 cent protein. Meat meal is the same 
as meat scrap only ground finer. Meat crisps, ground fine, 
are very valuable in the mash for growing chicks. Poor 
grades of meat scrap are unsafe as food for poultry. Purchase 
your supply from a reliable house and always test before using. 
Open the larger pieces and note whether mold is present. 
Pour boiling water upon a small quanity to discover whether 
the odor remains sweet. Also examine for hair and pieces of 
horn, which should not be present. 

Tankage is made of poorer grades of material and unless 
prepared by a reliable house with guaranteed analysis should 
not be used. High grade tankage is used very extensively, 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

but on account of its high protein content should be used in 
limited quantity. About 10 per cent of the mash mixture is 
advised. Used in excess it is liable to produce gout, rheuma- 
tism and other affections. 

Fish scrap, prepared from dried fish, is valuable as a proteid 
food and is used extensively in commercially prepared feeds. 
It frequently imparts a fishy flavor to the flesh and eggs. 

Milk in some form is very valuable for poultry. It may be 
fed sour or sweet. Granulated milk and dried buttermilk are 
convenient forms to use when skim milk is not accessible. 

Other Constituents of the Mash 

Charcoal is a corrective and aids digestion. It should be 
used in every dry mash to keep it sweet and dry, and should be 
kept before the fowls constantly in hoppers. 

Salt stimulates the secretions and aids digestion. Used in 
excess, it brings on bowel trouble and often acts as a poison, 
producing death. Used sparingly, it is of great value in a dry 
mash. About one-half pound in one hundred pounds of mash 
is the correct quantity. Dry, finely granulated table salt, free 
from lumps, is the kind to use. 

Ash comprises the mineral salts such as soda, lime, salt, 
magnesia. The combinations are chiefly chlorides, carbonates, 
phosphates and sulphates. These substances are usually sup- 
plied in foods of vegetable and animal origin. 

Fowls also obtain some of the mineral salts from the soil 
and the water they drink. A fowl given nothing but distilled 
w r ater and foods containing only pure protein and carbohydrate 
would soon perish. Phosphate and carbonate of lime are 
needed to build bone and the shell of the tgg. Ash enters 
into the structure of the feathers and is more or less needed 
in all the tissues of the body. If the supply in food and water 
is not sufficient, and this certainly occurs when fowls are 
kept in confinement, it should be supplied. This is done by 
feeding oyster shell, soil that is not infested, rock phosphate, 
ashes, crushed limestone and granulated bone. An adequate 
supply of mineral salts will prevent fowls from eating their 
droppings and increase the health of the flock. Oyster shell 
contains carbonate of lime, phosphate of lime and some 
organic matter. It should be kept before the fowls at all 
times. Its importance in egg production is shown by the 
sudden decrease in eggs when the supply runs out. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Granulated bone is valuable not only for the mineral matter 
it contains but for its protein. If supplied in a separate com- 
partment of the hopper, the poultry keeper will realize its 
value by the large amount consumed. It is especially valuable 
as a part of the egg-producing ration. 

Water is a mineral. It is a food because it enters into all 
the tissues and structures of the body. It must be provided or 
the fowl sickens and dies. It should be supplied fresh daily 
in clean vessels and is especially needed to soften the food after 
a full crop is obtained of dry feed. 

Green Feeds 

Green feeds are greatly relished by poultry. The goose 
subsists almost entirely upon weeds and grasses during the 
growing season. The same is true to a large extent with ducks 
and turkeys. The value of green food in promoting health and 
increasing egg-production is generally underestimated, and 
too little effort made to provide it. It contains an abundant 
supply of ash, and its proteid and carbohydrate nutrients are 
in easily digested form. When it cannot be supplied in succu- 
lent form it should be furnished in dry form. Some of the dry 
forms are clover meal, alfalfa meal and dried beet pulp. 

Alfalfa meal can be purchased at supply houses and many 
feed mills. If prepared from fresh green hay it makes a valu- 
able substitute for green feed. Its abundant supply of ash and 
other food elements makes it a desirable meal for the dry mash. 
As a rule alfalfa is not relished by poultry when fed alone, but 
as a part of the mash it is in favor, if used in limited quantity, 
about 10 per cent of the total weight. 

Clover meal has about the same value as alfalfa. Alsike 
clover makes a fine litter for laying hens. The leaves are eaten 
greedily. 

Beets or mangel wurzels make a very desirable succulent 
green food. They are greatly appreciated by the hens and 
are eagerly devoured. They may be chopped fine and fed in 
vessels or cut in slices and nailed to the wall. Beets contain 
water-soluble C vitamine, but are especially valued for their 
ash content. 

Other succulent feeds are cabbages, carrots, potatoes, 
turnips, pumpkins, sprouted oats, sprouted rye, swiss chard, 
lettuce, dandelion leaves, etc. The poultry keeper should plan 
in spring for his winter supply of succulent feed. A small 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

space devoted to mangels will give a surprising return. 
Carrots do not freeze readily and make a good feed that can 
be grown at small cost. 

Condiments 

We do not advise the use of stimulants and tonics as a 
practice. When the hens are healthy and happy and are doing 
full service in filling the egg basket why change a system of 
care and feeding that has been tried and found successful? 

There are times, however, when a tonic will help the fowl 
to tide over and save it from disease. Frequently the egg 
organs are dormant and only need a tonic to stimulate them 
to action in order to bring them into laying condition. Fowls 
are like human beings, they have their ills and humors and 
often need a corrective or a tonic, to which they readily re- 
spond, though it would be folly to depend upon these alone. 

Unless an egg tonic is used in connection with a balanced 
ration more harm will result than good. If the raw material 
is not present how can the egg be manufactured? If the 
nervous system needs a little stimulus to action, or the diges- 
tive system is sluggish and needs a tonic to correct abnormal 
conditions, or the reproductive organs are inactive and need 
a stimulant to incite the process of egg forming, a tonic may 
serve a good purpose. 

There are a large number of advertised tonics. Some of 
these are of real value, some are measured by an interrogation 
point. There are also private tonics which are offered as great 
secrets and sold for a price. Some of the substances frequently 
used are cayenne pepper, Venetian red, quinine, strychnine, 
sulphuric acid, ginger, onions, etc. Of these the following 
deserve mention : 

Cayenne pepper is a stimulant to the liver and other di- 
gestive organs. It is used to relieve colds, in which case it is 
given in gelatin capsules. This powerful stimulant should be 
used in limited quantity, if at all. 

Venetian red contains oxide of iron and calcium sulphate. 
It serves as a tonic to the digestive system and is beneficial to 
the blood. 

Iron, quinine and strychnine are valuable tonics and com- 
bined in tablets or capsules will be found a splendid help in 
restoring to vigor fowls that are off their feed, anaemic or 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 




Of course they'll lay if they have a comfortable, well-ventilated house like this, and are 
fed the way Mr. Osburn advises 

emaciated. Formula No. 1 suggests how the preparation 
should be made and administered. 

Ginger is a tonic very beneficial to all the organs. Com- 
bined with other remedies, as suggested in formula No. 2, it 
provides a tonic of real value. 

Mustard is a strong stimulant. Its remedial and tonic 
character is not fully appreciated. 

Onions are valuable as a food and serve as a tonic. They 
can be fed to growing stock over four weeks old and to adult 
fowls. 

The following tonics and stimulants are recommended : 

Formula No. I— Health Tonic 

Tonic for colds, asthenia, digestive disorders, an?emia, and general 
debility due to long continued laying, sitting, or other cause. 

Sulphate of quinine 1 grain 

Strychnine 1 /30 grain 

Iron Sulphate 1 grain 

Given daily in two-grain capsule until recovery. Mix equal parts of 
quinine and iron, then fill the capsule with the mixture after first putting 
in a l/30th grain tablet of the strychnine. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 



Formula No. II— Health Tonic 

Tonic for indigestion, torpid liver, constipation, diarrhsea, blood af- 
fections, and general debility. 

Gentian 8 ounces 

Mustard 8 ounces 

Ginger 4 ounces 

Epsom salts 8 ounces 

Saltpeter 4 ounces 

Iron Sulphate 1 grain 

Mix thoroughly and give two tablespoonfuls of the mixture in ten 
quarts of dry or moist mash, daily until recovery. 

Formula No. Ill — Egg Tonic 

Correct feeding and exercise are the best stimulants for the egg 
organs. Eggs cannot be produced without the raw material and often 
hens will not lay, though correctly fed, because they do not have suf- 
ficient exercise. Sometimes, however, when conditions are apparently 
just right the flock is sluggish and the hens refuse to lay. Under such 
conditions an egg tonic may have value. The tonic recommended below 
has been used to some extent, and those who have tried it have not been 
disappointed. It is claimed for it that it does not weaken the vitality, 
if directions are followed, and actually increases the fertility of the eggs. 
We advise its use simply as a means of stimulating the egg organs to 
action and to get the hens into the laying mood. It should always be ac- 
companied with a balanced ration and an abundant supply of feed. Direc- 
tions follow. 

To the water or milk for the daily mash add tincture of cantharides, 
allowing one-fifth of a drop to each hen. A hundred hens would require 
only 20 drops. A teaspoon contains 60 drops, which would be sufficient 
for 300 hens. Feed in the moist mash daily for one week. During the 
second week alternate the tincture of cantharides with black gunpowder, 
i.e., give the tincture one day and the gunpowder the following day. 
Add one tablespoonful of the powder to the water or milk for the 
daily mash. This will be sufficient for one hundred hens. 

After the second week feed the tincture of cantharides only once a 
week, but always follow it on the succeeding day with the black gun- 
powder. Gunpowder is composed of 70 per cent of niter, 15 per cent 
of sulphur, and IS per cent of charcoal. It is sometimes difficult to pur- 
chase. Any druggist can prepare it according to the formula given 
above. Continue this feeding for four weeks and then discontinue. 

Caution: 'Tincture of cantharides is a powerful poison and should be kept out of 
the reach of children. 

Formula No. IV — Egg Tonic 

To the mash for 50 hens add 8 teaspoonfuls of mustard. The mix- 
ture may be fed dry or moist, the moist mash being recommended. 
Mustard is a fine tonic and corrective, a splendid stimulant to the egg 
organs, and promotes the health of the flock. It is claimed that no 
harmful effects follow its use. 



[27] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

A Word of Caution 

In the foregoing discussion we have pointed out the nature, 
composition and value of the raw material required by poultry 
and have enumerated some of the more important foods which 
are available to the farmer in preparing rations for his flock. 
A few cautions regarding the selection of materials will not 
be out of place. 

1. Select feeds that the fowls relish. Rye is not relished 
by poultry and should not be fed, if other grains are available. 
Fed alone it will poison the flock and cause many losses. Oats 
and buckwheat are not relished on account of their indiges- 
tible hulls. Therefore they should be provided in inviting 
form. Palatability is the first requisite. 

2. Select feeds that are easily digested. Millet seed is 
palatable but not easily digested, so is of little value as a 
poultry feed. A food that has an excess of crude fiber is diffi- 
cult of digestion and should be avoided. 

3. Select feeds that are high in nutrient value. Polished 
rice is palatable and easily digested but it lacks in protein 
and is not a safe feed for poultry. 

4. Select feeds that are farm produced as far as possible. 
They are more available and less expensive. The concentrates 
of animal and vegetable origin must be purchased, but why 
purchase milo maize when corn is at hand. 

5. Select feeds that are free from mold and decay. This is 
the path of safety. Moldy and rotten feeds are dangerous and 
account for a large percent of poultry losses. Wheat must be 
free from must ; corn should be hand-selected and shelled 
especially for the flock; oats should be examined for musty 
and rotten kernels. So also all other feeds should be given 
the closest scrutiny. 

How Food is Used 

The changes which take place in the raw material, or food, 
as it is being transformed into the component parts of the 
body, involve several processes : Deglutition, swallowing ; mas- 
tication, pulverizing the food; digestion or dissolving and 
chemically changing it so that it can be transfused through the 
walls of the blood vessels ; absorption, taking it up into the 
blood and lymph ; circulation, transferring it to the parts of the 
body where it is needed for repair and growth; assimilation, 

[28] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

converting it into the substances which make up the or- 
ganism ; and oxidation, a process by which cell substances and 
organic compounds in the blood are united with oxygen, pro- 
ducing heat and energy; and excretion, by which the waste 
matter is thrown off from the body. 

These processes have been studied to some extent in Chap- 
ter II. Our discussion here pertains more especially to 
digestion, assimilation and oxidation. 

Another Practical Lesson 

It has been pointed out that the albumin and other proteids 
of the food are changed into peptone by the gastric juice and 
this is carried by the portal circulation to the liver where it 
is changed back to albumin. The gastric juice secreted by the 
stomach and gizzard contains three digestive principles — hy- 
drochloric acid, pepsin and rennin. The rennin coagulates 
the albumin and the pepsin changes it to peptone, but this 
process cannot be carried on without the aid of the hydro- 
chloric acid. 

Now the hydrochloric acid is manufactured from the salt 
which is found in the blood. This suggests the importance 
of feeding salt in the daily ration. Its aid to digestion is here 
indicated. 

Another digestive process is the change in the carbohy- 
drates (starches and sugars) to glucose. This is also trans- 
ported to the liver and there converted into glycogen, which is 
taken up by the blood. 

Still another change in the food is accomplished by the 
pancreatic and intestinal juices by which the fats are saponi- 
fied and emulsified so that they can be taken into the lymphatic 
circulation and by this emptied into the general circulation. 

What Becomes of Digested Food? 

The emulsified fat is oxidized in the lungs, producing heat 
and energy. It is probably all oxidized, as very little is found 
in the blood after it leaves the lungs. It is not used to make 
fatty tissue. That is made from the other elements of the 
food in the body itself. 

The glycogen, representing the carbohydrate of the food, is 
oxidized in the blood. It is the great source of heat and 
energy. Not all is oxidized there, but a portion of it goes to 
the cells and is used to manufacture fat. 

[29] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

The albumin of the blood is carried to the cells throughout 
the body and used to repair waste and build new cells and 
tissues for the body. Some of it is oxidized, but its chief func- 
tion is that of supplying material for growth and maintenance. 
It is a nitrogen-bearer, and there can be no protoplasm or 
living matter without nitrogen. It is even used in the manu- 
facture of fat, and this explains why fowls fatten readily when 
there is a liberal allowance of protein in the food. 

Composition of the Animal Body 

The elements that enter into the composition of a fowl's 
body are : Nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, calcium, phos- 
phorus, sodium, potassium, magnesium, iron, chlorine, sul- 
phur, silicon and fluorine. These elements also enter into the 
composition of an egg. In the body they are combined in 
many substances, some of them very complex. The process 
by which these elements and compounds are made a part of 
the living body is called assimilation. Oxidation, on the other 
hand, is a process of burning or tearing down. The chief sub- 
stances produced in this process are carbonic acid gas and 
water. 

The Kind of Food Required 

Evidently a perfect ration should contain all of the above 
named elements. We are accustomed to emphasize the pro- 
tein and carbohydrate content of the food but forget that the 
fowl just as surely needs water and the mineral salts in its 
ration. 

Water is a food because it adds to the weight of the body 
and is used to manufacture some of the compounds of the 
body. 

The mineral salts, such as salt, carbonate of lime, phos- 
phate of lime, sodium carbonate, sodium phosphate, and mag- 
nesium phosphate are truly foods for they enter into structures 
of the body. 

Food Constituents 

The substances entering into the composition of foods are 
classified as nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous. The nitro- 
genous substances are known as proteids. As the name 
implies, they contain nitrogen. The non-nitrogenous sub- 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 



stances include the ash and the carbohydrates and the fats. 
Water enters into the composition of all foods but not in 
sufficient quantity to meet the demands of the animal body. 
Crude fiber is the indigestible portion of the food and is 
composed chiefly of cellulose. 

The following table will help to fix this analysis in the mind. 

"Protein 
Nitrogenous. 



Crude Fiber (Cellulose) 



Albumin. 

Water .. Nutrient Carbohydrate, or Nitrogen-free 

. Carbohydrate. . . extract. 
Non-nitrogenous -^ p at \- 

Ash I C 

( Fat-soluble A 

Vitamines < Water-soluble B 

[ Water-soluble C 

Protein. This is the most important solid constituent of the food. 
It comprises 20 per cent of the fowl's body. It is necessary to the 
production of living matter, to cell-multiplication and growth, and to 
the formation of such tissues as blood, nerve and muscle. It occurs in 
nearly all grain and animal feeds. Those feeds which contain a large 
percentage of protein are called proteids. Illustrations are found in 
tankage, meat scrap, fish scrap, oil meal, cottonseed meal and milk 
products. 

Albumin. This is one of the proteids, but is given special considera- 
tion on account of its peculiar properties and its prominence in the 
tissues of the body, in the blood, and in the composition of the egg. 

Water. About 55 per cent of the fowl's body is water. Every cell 
of its organism cries out for water. Without water an animal soon 
perishes. It comprises 66 per cent of the composition of an egg. 

Egg production ceases when the water supply is cut off. It con- 
stitutes 87 per cent of the composition of milk, so that when milk is 
fed liberally, as well as succulent green feed, the demand for water is 
decreased. In the body it dissolves the food, aids in absorption, serves 
as a carrier for the solid principles of the blood, makes the tissues soft 
and pliable, and enters into some of the chemical changes which are 
constantly going on. 

Carbohydrates. These foods supply heat and energy for the body 
by oxidation, and the surplus is used in the production of fat. A carbo- 
hydrate is composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen 
and oxygen are always in the proportion found in water, so that when 
it is oxidized, the oxygen uniting with the carbon to produce carbonic 
acid gas, water becomes the residue. Carbohydrates abound in all grains 
and their by-products. In cold weather more carbohydrate is required 
than in summer. It does not occur in the structures of the body but 
is found in the blood as glucose, or as glycogen, and in the egg as 
glucose. 

Crude fiber (cellulose) is a carbohydrate, but is insoluble, and, there- 
fore, is indigestible. About 6 per cent of the dry mash may be crude 
fiber. 



[31 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 



HJ'i ■■ 


LJLJ 


| 


. _ 


|^r-i- 





This is a convenient type of small colony house 

Fat. Fat is composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but the 
hydrogen and oxygen are not in the proportion found in water. Fat, 
taken as food, is oxidized in the lungs to produce heat and energy. 
It occurs as vegetable oils in grains and seeds and as animal fat in meat 
scrap, bone meal, etc. The fat in the fowl's body, deposited in the inter- 
cellular spaces and as masses of adipose tissue, is manufactured in the 
body and serves as a reserve supply of fuel for the body and as material 
for the manufacture of eggs. A hen to lay well should carry a good 
supply of fat. Lean hens with thin breast bones are invariably poor 
layers. 

Ash. This term comprises the mineral salts and charcoal. They 
enter into the bones and other structures and form the shell of the egg. 
Grains and animal feeds usually provide sufficient ash to meet the hen's 
needs. Some is obtained from the water and some from the soil. Fowls 
are fond of eating soil, especially if released from confinement, indicat- 
ing that the ash element is lacking in their food. Charcoal is a cor- 
rective, is not digested, but should always be supplied, as it absorbs 
poisonous gases, aids indigestion, and contributes to the health of the 
fowl. 

Vitamines 



Vitamines. A vitamine is a substance whose presence in the food is 
essential to growth and health. There are three substances of this 
nature, known as Fat-soluble A., Water-Soluble B, and Water-Soluble 
C. Hopkins says: "No animal can live on a mixture of pure protein, 
fat and carbohydrate; and even when the necessary inorganic material 
is supplied the animal still cannot flourish." Not only is a balanced 
ration important, but the growth principles must be present in due pro- 
portion or the results will be disappointing. 

Vitamines have not been chemically analyzed. Their existence is 
known by experiment, their absence invariably resulting in such serious 
diseases as rickets, scurvy and polyneuritis (Beri-beri). 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Fat-soluble A occurs in such feeds as whole milk, eggs, whole grains, 
linseed, cabbage, lettuce, carrots, and potatoes, and meats. Its absence 
results in rickets, a disease affecting the whole body. 

Water-soluble B is found in skim-milk, eggs, whole grains, bran, lin- 
seed, and most vegetables. Its absence results in Beri-beri, or poly- 
neuritis. A fowl fed solely on polished rice contracts this disease and 
may be cured by feeding whole rice or any of the feeds named above. 

Water-soluble C is found in milk, cabbage, turnips, carrots, potatoes, 
beets, lettuce and fruits. Feeding substances deficient in this vita'mine 
results in scurvy, and the cure of this disease is secured by correcting 
the ration. Water-soluble C is found in all fruit juices and more or less 
in nearly all vegetables and fresh meat. 

All of the above nutrients are important. Even the crude 
fiber is of value in limited quantity, as it furnishes material 
to stimulate the peristaltic action of the intestines. In excess, 
however, it hinders digestion. The enumeration of poultry 
feeds given above comprises chiefly those produced on the 
farm. By careful planning the poultry keeper can produce his 
own feeds, thus reducing expenses and enabling him to prepare 
his own rations. Grain mixtures and mashes prepared at 
home are not only of known composition, but the quality of 
the nutrients can be known and regulated. 



33 



Chapter IV 

Feeding. 



PROPER feeding is the chief secret of success in poultry 
raising. Large losses of young chickens, failure to get 
winter eggs, and many diseases and other troubles are due to 
improper feeding. 

We must first understand the needs of the fowl's organism 
and then study faithfully how to supply those needs. Some 
of the rations which follow have been worked out in detail so 
that the reader can understand how the nutritive ratios are 
determined. All the rations, except the one pertaining to fat- 
tening, require a double mixture, i.e., a grain mixture and a 
mash mixture. 

It would be very difficult to compound a balanced ration 
such as the hen requires for egg-production from whole grains 
because they would be deficient in protein, but when we can 
add to the grain mixtures such protein concentrates as are 
found in animal and vegetable meals, it is quite easy to provide 
a balanced ration for the laying hen. 

The use of such a ration explains why the hens lay in 
winter. Under the old system of feeding whole grains, eggs 
were a great rarity in winter. Now it is the rule for the farm 
flock to give a good account in the months when eggs are 
supposed to be scarce. Hens always lay in summer time be- 
cause then they can secure insects and green feed and thus 
balance the grain ration that the farmer provides. Under 
scientific feeding they will respond just as faithfully in the 
winter season. 

Principles of Feeding 

If you will note the following outline of the composition of 
the body and egg of a fowl you can understand that scientific 
feeding consists in bringing to the flock all the elements needed 
for growth and maintenance and production, and these ele- 
ments must be provided in a manner economical and conducive 
to health. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Water Protein Fat Ash 

Fowl, per cent 55 20 19 6 

Egg, percent 66 13 9 12 

Body growth and maintenance come first. Unless there 
is a surplus of material above that required for heat, energy, 
growth and maintenance there can be no production of eggs. 
In laying down the following principles of feeding the de- 
mands of the fowl have been consulted. 

Balanced Rations 

A balanced ration is necessary, that is, a ration that 
supplies the food elements that are needed, and in the proper 
proportion. If poultry raisers would feed only those rations 
that meet the actual needs of the fowls in each season, their 
troubles would cease. The medicine chest would be forgotten 
and the question, "Does poultry pay?" would receive an 
immediate answer in the affirmative. This is the secret they 
long have sought. Detailed grain and mash rations for all con- 
ditions are given on pages 46 to 51. 

Supplementary Feeds 

In addition to the regular ration selected, certain supple- 
mentary materials should be provided: 

Grit is actually needed for grinding the feed. Its presence 
in the crop is not absolutely needed for the life of the bird, 
for fowls have been known to thrive for months without it. 
It has been proven, however, that a supply of grit means more 
rapid mastication, more complete digestion and greater thrift. 

If grit material is made of quartz or granite it is insoluble 
in the digestive fluids, and a small quantity will last for a long 
period. A fowl may be deprived of grit for months and yet a 
quantity will be found in the crop. Oyster shell serves as grit 
for a brief period only, as it is dissolved by the hydrochloric 
acid of the digestive fluids. Good sharp grit should always be 
in reach of the flock. 

Water must be classed as a food. As it comprises 55 per 
cent of the fowl's body and 66 per cent of the composition of 
an egg, its importance is evident. It is true that a bird can 
live for a considerable period without water, but it cannot 
produce eggs without it nor can it live indefinitely. I have 
known baby chicks to thrive for two weeks without any water 
outside of what they obtained in their daily ration of food. 

T351 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

You consider this a cruel experiment, but probably they did 
not suffer seriously, as all feeds contain a large percentage of 
water and this is constantly being set free in assimilation and 
taken into the blood. The importance of clean water in clean 
vessels cannot be emphasized too strongly. Water gives 
plumpness to the body, aids digestion, takes part in the pro- 
cesses of assimilation, is the carrier of waste matter to the 
lungs and kidneys, and, therefore, is essential to a healthy body. 

The best method to supply water is in open vessels. These 
should be placed on elevated platforms in such a position that 
the fowls cannot get into them with their feet. The vessel 
should have sloping sides so that in case of freezing it will 
not be easily broken and the ice can be easily removed. Such 
a vessel is quickly cleaned and on a platform as suggested does 
not become foul from the litter. 

Milk is of great value for growing stock. It can be fed sour 
or sweet, but it is advised not to change from one kind to the 
other. For all seasons sweet milk has preference. Sweet milk 
can be used as soon as separated and, if fed in the morning, 
it will usually keep sweet until all is consumed. It is of great 
value in preparing moist mashes for growing stock and fatten- 
ing rations. It contains considerable protein but this is bal- 
anced by the carbohydrate of the succulent feeds. Chicks fed 
on milk grow rapidly and are thrifty. It is claimed that the 
lactic acid of milk holds in check the bacteria of white diarrhea. 
It is certainly true that if a brood of chicks once becomes in- 
fected with bacillary or coccidial diarrhea it has little value as 
a cure. 

Ash comprises the mineral salts. Of these phosphate of 
lime and carbonate of lime are of especial importance in form- 
ing bone and the shell of eggs. A good source of phosphate of 
lime, or phosphoric acid, is bone meal or granulated bone. 
It will pay to keep this before growing chicks constantly. It 
contains 45 per cent of phosphoric acid and in a form that is 
easy of assimilation. It also contains protein, which adds to 
its value as a food. The lime for the egg shell is obtained by 
feeding oyster shell. If this is withheld it means thin shells 
and fewer eggs. 

Green feed of a succulent nature is essential to the health 
of a fowl. It is valuable not only because it contains water 
and other nutrient substances but it contains the vitamines, 
or growth principles so necessary to vitality and growth. The 

[36] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

white potato is anti-scorbutic and will ward off the disease 
known as scurvy. Beets, carrots, Swiss chard, dandelion 
leaves and rape will help prevent sore eyes due to dietary de- 
ficiency ; mustard leaves have a tonic effect and make a good 
green food. 

Quality of Feed 

Sound and clean grains should be selected for the ration. 
Sometimes shriveled and chaffy grain, caused by weather con- 
ditions, contains a larger protein content in proportion to 
weight than heavier grain and is perfectly safe for feeding, if 
free from disease. Mill feeds purchased for the dry mash 
should be examined with the closest scrutiny. The odor and 
texture will be a guide as to quality. Musty., moldy and 
spoiled feeds should be rejected. Rotten potatoes will cause 
ptomaine poisoning. Rotten and moldy oats will cause As- 
pergillosis. Tainted meat scraps have caused untold losses. 
Putrid milk sometimes brings on an epidemic of disease. Many 
diseases are communicated through foul water. 

Crude fiber should be avoided. It is largely cellulose and 
indigestible. 

How Much Feed and When? 

Overfeeding results in serious disturbances of the digestive 
system. An excess of protein means liver and kidney disease. 
An excess of any one kind of feed, such as corn, often leads to 
serious digestive disorders. Underfeeding is as serious as 
overfeeding, for it means a stunted growth and weakness that 
render the fowl suceptible to disease. 

The quantity must be determined by the attendant. He 
must study the needs of the flock and feed only what will be 
consumed without waste. The average daily ration of 100 
Leghorn hens is 15 pounds of grain mixture and mash. This 
would mean 10 pounds of grain and 5 pounds of mash. The 
average daily amount consumed by 100 hens of the dual pur- 
pose type is about 18 pounds. This would mean about 12 
pounds of grain mixture and 6 pounds of mash. On free 
range a Leghorn hen will eat about 55 pounds of feed in a 
year and a dual purpose hen about 75 pounds. 

There is no fast rule as to the quantity of feed to be given. 
A heavy layer will eat much more than a poor layer. Con- 

[37] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

sumption will be greater in extremely cold weather than in 
mild weather. Consumption will be greater in the spring when 
the whole flock is busy in egg-production than in the fall when 
few are laying. Here is where the personal equation enters, 
and the attendant must win or lose according to the judgment 
he uses. 

Cleanliness 

This is one of the cardinal principles of good feeding. A 
clean feeding place is vital. Damp and moldy litter is danger- 
ous. A feeding floor covered with the dropping of diseased 
chicks means speedy ruin to the whole brood. When the op- 
pressive days of summer come it is no pleasant task to clean 
out the brooder or the colony house and replenish the litter, 
but it must be done promptly and regularly or failure will fol- 
low. Watering vessels can be kept clean by placing them on 
elevated platforms. The same is true of hoppers and self 
feeders for grit, charcoal and mashes. 

Exercise and Feeding 

As far as possible feed should be given so as to encourage 
exercise. Even the mash can be placed so that the fowl must 
use some physicial exercise to get it. 

The grain mixture should be fed in moderately deep litter 
six to eight inches in depth. Care should be used in selecting 
the litter. For young chicks short-cut alfalfa, alsike clover, 
or short-cut rye straw will be found safe. Wheat and oat straw 
often bear the spores of mold and smut and rust, which fre- 
quently produce fatal disease. 

Rye straw is usually bright and clean and if run through 
the silo cutter will make a very fine litter. Chaff gathered 
around the threshing machine is usually dusty, and is unsafe 
to use. If the floor of the scratch pen is inclined to be damp 
the litter should be shallow to allow the dampness to dry out. 
The fowls in the pen with damp litter are the ones to get out 
of condition. The litter should be changed monthly while the 
flock is in winter quarters. 

How to Feed 

There are about as many systems of feeding as there are 
poultry keepers. Every farmer's wife has her own system, and 
she generally wins average success. The systems given below 

[38] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

are not perfect, but if you give them a fair trial you will not be 
disappointed. 

Feeding the Baby Chick 

Feed nothing until the third day after the chick is hatched. 
Just before the chick is ready to break the shell the yolk of 
the egg is absorbed into the abdomen. This is a provision of 
nature to furnish nourishment for the chick during the first 
few days of its growing life. During these few days the yolk 
is absorbed into the circulation and assimilated. 

If the chick is fed before that process is completed, which 
requires about 72 hours, the process of absorption is checked 
and the yolk remains in the abdomen, a menace to its health 
and growth. Many chicks that perish, if examined, would be 
found to contain the unabsorbed yolk. At the end of this 
period, or at the close of the third day, give a light feed of 
rolled oats and give sweet milk for drink. 

The feed should be very simple for the first two days, 
nothing but rolled oats, with milk in the forenoon and water 
in the afternoon. If the plan of removing the milk at noon, 
cleansing the vessels, and replacing with water in the after- 
noon is followed throughout the feeding period, there will be 
little danger of harm from putrid milk. We advise sweet 
milk because it is just as valuable as sour milk and is available 
at all seasons. 

After the second day of feeding, place the chicks on Ration 
No. 1, found on page 46. Rolled oats or pinhead oats con- 
stitute the scratch ration, and should be thrown in shallow 
litter to induce exercise. A feeding box about three inches 
deep and three feet square would answer well for 100 chicks. 
This could be removed, cleaned and supplied with fresh litter 
as required. The mash portion of the ration should be 
placed in a hopper upon an elevated platform so as to keep it 
clean. Self feeders for this purpose can be purchased at trifl- 
ing cost. Near the mash feeder should be placed a hopper with 
three compartments containing grit, charcoal, and granulated 
bone. 

At the end of the second week change gradually to Ration 
No. II (page 46). This means a change from rolled or pin- 
head oats to whole wheat as the scratch feed, and the change 
can be made by adding a little wheat to the oats, then increas- 
ing the wheat until the oats can be omitted. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

At the end of four weeks change to Ration No. Ill (page 
46). Note that the mash mixture for No. Ill is the same as 
for No. I and No. II, so that no change will be required in 
that portion of the ration. The grain mixture, however, now 
consists of corn, wheat and oats, a less expensive ration and 
one presenting a greater variety. 

After the first week green feed should be supplied. Sliced 
raw potatoes will be greatly relished by the chicks. The tops 
of sprouted oats or rape also serve well. Dandelion leaves are 
especially recommended on account of their favorable action 
on the liver. Beet pulp is a good succulent food. Lettuce and 
rape are recommended by some poultry keepers. Swiss 
chard is worth considering. 

If Ration No. IV is used the same general system of feeding 
is recommended. 

How to Feed for Egg Production 

Use Rations No. V or VI (page 49) for winter feeding. 
The grain mixture should be thrown in deep clean litter to 
promote exercise. The mash should be kept before the fowls 
continually in hoppers on elevated platform. Otherwise the 
hoppers will be filled with litter. Near the mash should be 
a four-compartment hopper with grit, charcoal, oyster shell, 
and granulated bone. For litter there is nothing better than 
bright alsike hay. If this cannot be obtained, chopped rye 
straw or bright wheat straw is advised. If this cannot be ob- 
tained oat straw should be used as a last extremity. 

The aim should be to secure litter that is not dusty or 
moldy. Change the litter once a month during the winter 
and once in three months when the fowls are on free range. 
For green feed mangel wurzels once a day are valuable. 

Sprouted oats or sprouted rye are greedily consumed by 
the fowls. In sprouting oats, mold often forms. This can be 
avoided by washing the trays with a solution of formaldehyde 
and by adding to the water in which the oats are to be soaked 
over night a few drops of formaldehyde. Cabbage, carrots, 
turnips, pumpkins, alfalfa leaves and alsike leaves all give good 
results as succulent feeds. 

When the days grow warmer a change should be made to 
Ration No. VIII (page 50). This is a narrower ration but is 
adapted to summer feeding. Keep the self-feeder full of mash 
and feed the grain mixture once a day. 

[40] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 
Feeding the Breeding Stock 

It is not customary to make any distinction between the 
utility layers and the breeders in the matter of feeding, but 
where eggs are to be sold for hatching, or the poultry keeper 
wishes to raise a large supply of breeding stock, the care and 
feeding of the foundation stock are certainly important. 

Where stock is to be used solely for the production of 
market eggs, forced feeding should be used for the first year or 
two, and then they should be fattened for market. In the case 
of breeding stock, however, where vigorous offspring are de- 
sired too much forcing may bring disaster. Whole grains are 
indicated, and the mash should not be too rich in protein. Ra- 
tion No. VII is recommended. 

This is a wide ration and will probably bring the breeding 
stock to laying condition about the 15th of February. This 
is about the time when the farmer begins to think of filling 
the incubator. His flock has not been weakened by forced 
feeding for eggs, but is in the pink of condition. 

How to Feed During the Molt 

For the formation of feathers a ration rich in nitrogen is 
required. Ration No. IX (page 51) is advised. It should 
follow the summer ration, beginning about the first of Septem- 
ber and continuing till the last of November. If the fowls are 
confined, the usual allowance of succulent feed and ash should 
be provided. 

Feeding for the Market 

Capons, surplus cockerels and culls from the laying flock 
should not be shipped to market without conditioning. Even 
confinement in a room with whole corn, water and grit would 
be better than no conditioning at all. If Ration No. X (page 
51) is used quick results will be obtained. 

The crate method of feeding, with slatted bottoms to insure, 
cleanliness, and a feeding trough outside the crate, is a com- 
mon method of feeding. A small room with litter and an 
elevated platform for the feeding trough and other vessels 
will answer as well. The mash should be given three times 
a day, all that the fowls will consume in twenty minutes. As 
soon as the fowls are fat, market promptly. In crate fattening 
Leghorns, provision should be made for exercise or the re- 
sults will be disappointing. 

[41] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 
Constructing a Ration 

Balanced rations are determined by the ratio existing 
between the protein content of the ration and the starch, sugar 
and fat (nutrient carbohydrate). This ratio is called the 
nutritive ratio. 

For example, a balanced ration for growing chicks requires 
that the starch, sugar and fat in the combination of feeds 




Dinner time in the poultry yard 



should be four and one-half times greater in weight than the 
protein. The nutritive ratio therefore is 1 : 4j^. 

To illustrate further, in a certain combination of feeds 
which furnish a balanced ration for growing chicks it is found 
that there are 10 pounds of protein and 45 pounds of starch, 
sugar and fat. The ratio between the two is therefore 10 : 45. 
Reducing this by dividing the ratio by 10, we get a nutritive 
ratio of 1 : 4.5. 

To illustrate further, in a certain combination of feeds 
ratio should be approximately 1:5. It may be a little more 
or a little less. If the nutrients are supplied in that ratio the 

[42] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

hen will see that her ration is balanced by selecting the feeds 
she needs. She cannot be fed with a spoon, or by exact rule or 
measure. If the nutrients are placed before her in approxi- 
mately the right proportion her own instincts will guide her 
in selecting the food required. 

To furnish a ration suited to fattening fowls for market, 
it has been found that the nutritive ratio should be 1 : 3, 
i.e., there must be a smaller proportion of starch, sugar and 
fat than in the nutritive ratio for the laying hen. 

How is the Nutritive Ratio Determined? 

From the observations already made it is easy to under- 
stand that the nutritive ratio is the relation existing between 
the protein and the carbohydrate, it is the comparison between 
the weight of the nutrient protein and the nutrient carbo- 
hydrate. 

How is this ratio determined? Simply by determining 
the total weight of protein in all the materials of the ration 
and then the weight of the carbohydrate in the same materials. 
When that is done the comparison is easily made by dividing 
the ratio by the number representing the weight of the 
protein. To determine the weights in question it is necessary 
to refer to the table showing the percentages of nutrients in 
each variety of food. 

In determining the carbohydrate it is necessary to reduce 
the fat to terms of carbohydrate. This is done by multiplying 
by 2% and adding the product to the weight of the nitrogen- 
free extract. The reason for this is that fat has the power to 
produce two and one-fourth times as much heat and energy 
as the same weight of nutrient carbohydrate. 

Illustration: A ration consists of 10 pounds of corn, 10 
pounds of wheat, and 10 pounds of oats. What is the nutritive 
ratio? 

By referring to the table given below, showing the per- 
centages of nutrients, it is possible to determine the weight of 
each nutrient. The following illustration shows how the prob- 
lem is worked out and the nutritive ratio determined. 



[43] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 



Grains 
10 lbs. Corn 
10 lbs. Wheat 
10 lbs. Oats 



Protein 
1.0S lbs. 
1.19 lbs. 
1.18 lbs. 



Nutrient 
Carbohydrate 

6.96 lbs. 
7.19 lbs. 

5.97 lbs. 



Totals 3.42 lbs. 

Reducing fat to Carbohy. 



Fat 
.54 lbs. 
.21 lbs. 
.50 lbs. 
1.25 lbs. 



20.12 lbs. 

2.81 
22.93 

6.7 —the nutritive ratio. 



Adding 3.42 

Dividing by 3.42— 1 

To convert the 1.25 lbs. of fat to terms of carbohydrate we multiply- 
by 2J4. This gives 2.8 lbs. which is added to the 20.12 lbs. of nutrient 
carbohydrate (often called nitrogen-free extract) and this gives us 22.93 
lbs., which represents the carbohydrate in the 30 lbs. of food. Our ratio 
therefore is 3.42 : 22.93. Dividing this ratio by 3.42 we get the nutritive 
ratio, which is 1 : 6.3. 



Wide and Narrow Nutritive Ratios 

It will be observed in the ration just given that the amount 
of carbohydrate is much larger than the amount of protein, 
much larger than in the nutritive ratio for laying hens, which 
is 1 : 5. Such a ration is said to have a wide nutritive ratio. 
On the other hand the nutritive ratio for growing chicks has 
a smaller amount of nutrient carbohydrate than found in the 
nutritive ratio for the laying hen, and such a ratio is said to be 
narrow. 




A good day's work 



[44; 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 



Feeds 



Table I. ■ Composition of Poultry Feeds 

Crude Nutrient 
Water Ash Protein Fiber Carbohydrate Fat 

Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent 



.10.9 



10.9 
11.0 
10.5 



Whole grains: 

Corn 

Kafir Corn 

Barley 

Oats 

Wheat 

Buckwheat 12.6 

Sunflower seed 8.6 

Soy bean 8.7 

Ground grains: 

Corn meal 15.0 

Barley meal 11.9 

Soy-bean meal 10.2 

Gluten meal 8.6 

Gluten feed 8.1 

Wheat bran 11.9 

Wheat middlings 12.1 

O. P. Linseed meal 9.2 

Foods of animal origin: 

Meat scrap 7.9 

Meat meal 6.3 

Blood meal 10.6 

Tankage 10.0 

Fish scrap 7.5 

Whole milk 87.2 

Skim milk 90.6 

Buttermiik 90.1 

Granulated milk 28.5 

Green feeds: 

Green alfalfa 80.0 

Alfalfa meal 11.9 

Green clover 70.8 

Clover meal ' 10.0 

Potatoes 78.9 

Mangel beets 90.9 

Dry beet pulp 8.0 

Onions 87.6 

Turnips 90.5 

Carrots 88.6 

Cabbage 90.5 

Lettuce 95.5 

Swiss chard 87.8 



1.5 
2.1 
2.4 
3.0 
1.8 
2.0 
2.6 
5.4 

1.4 
2.6 
5.0 
.6 
1.3 
5.8 
3.3 
5.7 



4.6 
10.0 

6.0 
.6 
.7 
.7 

3.6 

1.8 
7.1 
2.1 
8.1 
1.0 
1.1 
5.4 
0.6 
0.8 
1.0 
1.4 
0.8 
2.4 



10.5 
9.1 
12.4 
11.8 
11.9 
10.0 
15.3 
36.3 

9.2 
10.5 
35.9 
30.0 
23.2 
15.4 
15.6 
32.9 

49.7 
48.4 
75.7 
60.0 
42.0 
3.6 
3.1 
4.0 
13.7 

4.9 
14.1 
4.4 
16.3 
2.1 
1.4 
9.5 
1.4 
1.1 
1.1 
3.8 
1.6 
4.4 



2.1 
2.6 
2.7 
9.5 
1.8 
S.7 
29.9 
3.9 

1.9 
6.5 
3.4 
2.6 
6.4 
9.0 
4.6 
8.9 



7.9 

27.1 

8.1 

17.8 

.6 

.9 

15.4 

0.7 

1.2 

1.3 

1.5 

0.5 

2.9 



69.6 
69.8 
69.8 

59.7 
71.9 
64.5 

21.4 
27.7 

68.7 
66.3 
28.0 
49.2 
54.7 
53.9 
60.4 
35.4 



4.9 

5.3 

4.0 

51.1 



37.3 

13.5 

46.0 

17.3 

5.5 

61.3 

9.4 

6.2 

7.6 

2.4 

1.0 

2.5 



5.4 
3.6 
18 
5.0 
2.1 
2.2 
21.2 
18.0 

3.8 
2.3 
17.5 
8.8 
6.3 
4.0 
4.0 
7.7 

18.5 

12.9 

7.1 

0.5 

17.0 

2.7 

.3 

1.2 

3.1 

.1 
2.4 
1.1 
1.7 
0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.3 
0.2 
0.4 
0.4 
0.2 
0.4 



The above percentages are in the main supplied by the 
U. S. Department of Agriculture. As food materials vary in 
composition, owing to conditions over which the analyst has 
no control, no two analyses of the same substance will be 
exactly the same. Those given above are sufficiently accurate 
for all practical purposes. 

Using the table given, the poultry keeper can compound 
his own rations. Knowing the object he wishes to attain, 
whether to grow the chick or provide for the laying hen or to 
fatten for market and knowing the nutritive ratio required, he 
can combine a ration from the feeds at hand that will give as 
good results as by the purchase of more expensive feeds. 

[45] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY ROOK 

Some elements of the ration may have to be purchased, such 
as protein concentrates and a few vegetable meals, but in the 
main the grains and green feeds can be produced on the farm. 
The balanced rations given below have been tried out and we 
believe will be found safe and reliable. 



Rations for Growing Chicks 

Ration No. I. For first two weeks. Nutritive ratio required 1 : 4.5. 



Scratch feed: Lbs. 

Rolled or pin-head oats 100 

Mash: 

Corn meal 20 

Oat meal 20 

Bran 20 

Wheat middlings 20 

Meat scrap 20 

Totals . ."200 

15.48 lbs. Fat X 2 l A = 

Adding 

Dividing by 32.92 — 





Nutrient 






Protein 


Carbohydrate 




Fat 


15.00 


66.00 




8.00 


1.84 


13.74 




0.76 


2.94 


13.48 




1.42 


3.08 


10.78 




0.80 


3.12 


12.08 




0.80 


9.94 


0.00 




3.70 


35.92 


116.08 
34.83 




15.48 


35.92 


150.91 






1 


: 4.5 , the 


nut: 
rati" 


ritive 



Ration No. II. 
quired 1 : 4.5. 



For third and fourth weeks. Nutritive ratio re- 



Scratch feed: Lbs. 

Wheat 100 

Dry Mash: 

Corn meal 20 

Oat meal 20 

Wheat bran 20 

Wheat middlings 20 

Meat scrap 20 

Totals . 200~ 

9.58 lbs. fat X 2% — 

Adding 

Dividing by 32.82 = 

Ration No. III. After fourth week. 

Scratch feed: Lbs. 

Whole wheat 40 

Cracked corn 40 

Hulled oats 20 

Dry Mash: 

Corn meal 20 

Oat meal 20 

Bran 20 

Wheat middlings 20 

Meat scrap 20 

Totals 200 

11.09 lbs. Fat X 2 Mi = 

Adding 

Dividing by 32.82 — 





Nutrient 




Protein 


Carbohydrate 


Fat 


11.90 


71.90 




2.10 


1.84 


13.74 




0.76 


2.94 


13.48 




1.42 


3.08 


10.78 




0.80 


3.12 


12.08 




0.80 


9.94 


0.00 




3.70 


32.82 


121.98 
21.55 




9.58 


32.82 


143.53 






1 


: 4.4 , 


the 


nutritive 
ratio. 




Nutrient 




Protein 


Carbohydrate 


Fat 


4.76 


28.76 




0.84 


4.20 


27.84 




2.16 


2.94 


13.48 




1.42 


1.84 


13.74 




0.76 


2.94 


13.48 




1.42 


3.08 


10.78 




0.80 


3.12 


12.08 




0.80 


9.94 


0.00 




3.70 










32.82 


120.16 
26.77 




11.90 


32.82 


146.93 






1 


: 4.5 , 


the 


nutritive 
ratio. 



46" 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Rations I, II, and III are designed to be used in the order 
suggested. Note that the same mash mixture answers for all 
three rations. By following the system here given the chicks 
are provided with nourishing food, make rapid growth, and 
are early brought to a ration of whole grains. If milk is given 
it may be sweet skim milk, which is the most convenient for 
all seasons. It should be placed before the chicks in the 
morning and removed at noon, to be followed by water in the 
afternoon. Succulent green food should be supplied after the 
second day. A hopper containing chick size charcoal, chick 
grit and granulated bone should be accessible at all times. 
The granulated bone will furnish the ash needed for the de- 
velopment of bone and other tissues. 

Fine charcoal should be added to all the mashes, about six 
pounds to 100 pounds of mash. No grit should be given except 
in the hopper, but in ration No. Ill one-half pound of salt may 
be added to each 100 pounds of mash. The salt must be fine 
and free from lumps. These rations have been developed on 
the understanding that chicks will eat equal quantities of 
scratch feed and mash. Their own instincts and appetites 
will help them balance their ration if given the opportunity. 
Succulent feed should not be neglected, sliced potatoes, beets, 
dandelion leaves, tops of sprouted oats, lettuce, mustard or 
swiss chard. 

Ration No. IV. From baby chick to maturity. Nutritive ratio 1 : 4.5. 

Nutrient 

Scratch feed: Lbs. Protein Carbohydrate Fat 

Cracked wheat 40 4.76 28.76 0.84 

Fine cracked corn 40 4.20 27.84 2.16 

Pin-head oats 20 2.94 13.48 1.42 

Mash: 

Bran 45 6.93 24.25 1.80 

Oat meal 40 5.88 26.96 2.84 

Meat scrap _T5_ 7.45 0.00 2.77 

Totals 200 32.16 121.29 lT83 

11.83 lbs. Fat = 26.62 

Adding 32.16 ' 147.91 

Dividing by 32.16 = 1 : 4.6 , the nutritive 

ratio. 

The above ration can be used from the first day. but it 
would be well to start the chicks on rolled oats or bread and 
hard boiled egg for the first two days. The directions given 
above regarding milk, charcoal, granulated bone, grit and 
green feed should not be overlooked. If the chicks have free 
range, the supply of green feed can be limited. Green feed will 

[47] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

overcome scorbutus (scurvy) and lameness and help prevent 
sore eyes due to dietary deficiency. 

Rations for Egg Production 

If hens are to be forced for egg production a narrower 
ration may be used than when they are to be fed for breeding 
purposes. If a breeder is fed a forcing ration her vitality may 
be so reduced that when the breeding season comes her eggs 
will not be fertile or the chicks that hatch from them may lack 
in vigor. 

It would be wisdom, therefore, to pen the hens intended for 
breeding purposes in separate pens and allow them a wider 
ration. The laying hen requires a nutritive ratio of 1 : 5. It 
has been found in the egg-laying contests that one pound of 
carbohydrate will produce 3^ yolks and that one pound of 
protein will produce 16% whites. This results after the needs 
of the hen's body are supplied. 

To produce one hundred yolks, therefore, would require 
30 pounds of carbohydrate ; and to produce one hundred whites 
would require six pounds of protein. This gives a ratio of 
one to five, that is, when there is five times as much carbo- 
hydrate in the food as protein there will be produced an equal 
number of whites and yolks. This shows the necessity of a 
balanced ration, for if the protein is deficient there will be too 
few whites produced for the number of yolks, and the process 
of completing the egg will be delayed. The two rations given 
below will be found helpful. It is generally supposed that a 
hen will consume the same weight of grain ration as mash. In 
actual experience, however, a hen usually consumes twice as 
much grain as mash. This would unbalance our ration and 
supply the hen with a greater proportion of carbohydrate than 
the nutritive ratio requires. That these statements are true 
is attested by the fact that during the winter months, when 
forcing rations are used, the hen needs more carbohydrate to 
maintain heat and energy. If left to her own instincts and the 
materials are placed before her, she will see that the proper 
balance is' maintained for egg production. This cannot be 
done if the ration is lacking in any essential. 



48 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 



Ration No. V. For winter egg production. Nutritive ratio required 
1:5. 

Nutrient 
Grain mixture: Lbs. Protein Carbohydrate Fat 

Cracked corn 60 6.30 41.76 3.24 

Wheat 40 4.76 28.76 0.84 

Totals 100 11.06 7052 C08 

Fat to carbohydrate 9.18 

Adding 11.06 79.70 

Mash: 

Bran 30 4.62 16.17 1.20 

Oatmeal 30 4.41 20.22 2.13 

Alfalfa meal 20 2.82 7.46 0.48 

Meat scrap 20 9.94 0.00 3.70 

Salt, y 2 lb _ .... 

Totals 100 21.79 4T85 7TsT 

Fat to carbohydrate 16.90 

Adding 21.79 6075 

Dividing by 2 — = . . 1089 3037 

Adding grain mixture ' 11.06 79.70 

Totals consumed — 2L95 110.07 

Dividing by 21.95 — 1 : 5 , the nutritive 

ratio. 
Note. — The nutritive ratio of the above ration, based on the equal 
weight", of grain mixture and mash is 1 : 4.3. As in actual practice 
the hen consumes only half as much mash as grain mixture, we must 
divide the protein and carbohydrate of the mash by two and add the 
quotients to the corresponding weights in the grain mixture. The re- 
sulting weights will enable us to obtain the nutritive ratio of the actual 
nutrients consumed by the hen. 

Ground oats can be used instead of oat meal, but add 9 per cent to 
allow for crude fiber; 

Ration No. VI. For winter egg production. Ratio required 1: 5. 

Nutrient 

Grain mixture: Lbs. Protein Carbohydrate Fat 

Cracked corn 75 7.87 52.20 4.05 

Whole wheat 50 5.95 35.95 1.05 

Hulled oats _25 3.67 16.85 1-77 

Totals 150 17.49 105.00 6.87 

Fat to carbohydrate 15.46 

Adding 17.49 120.46 

Mash: 

Wheat bran 25 3.85 13.47 1.00 

Wheat middlings 25 3.90 15.10 1.00 

Corn meal 25 2.30 17.17 0.95 

Oatmeal 25 3.67 16.85 1.77 

Mealed alfalfa 20 2.82 7.46 0.48 

Meat scrap 25 12.42 0.00 4.63 

O. P. Oil meal 5 1.64 1.77 0.39 

Salt, y 2 lb •••• 

Totals 150 30.60 71.82 10.22 

Fat to carbohydrate 22.99 

Adding 30.60 94.81 

Dividing by 2 15.30 47.40 

Adding grain mixture 17.49 120.46 

Totals consumed 32.79 167.86 

Dividing by 32.79 1 : 5 , the nutritive 

ratio. 

[49] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Note. This ration is more complex than the preceding but has the 
advantage in providing greater variety. Charcoal should be added to 
all dry mashes, about three to six pounds to 100 pounds of mash. 

If ground oats or whole oats are used add 9 per cent on account of 
crude fiber. 

Ration No. VII. For summer egg production on free range. 

Grain mixture: Mash: 

Cracked corn 30 lbs. Bran 50 lbs. 

Wheat 40 lbs. Ground oats 40 lbs. 

Clipped oats 30 lbs. Meat scrap 10 lbs. 

100 lbs. 100 lbs. 

This ration gives a nutritive ratio of 1 : 5. Hens on the 
farm do not always produce well during the summer months. 
This is often because the ration is neglected. By providing a 
mash as indicated in self feeders in dry and convenient places 
and keeping the hoppers full, the hens will give a good account 
of themselves. On free range the grain mixture should be 
given once a day in the evening. 

Ration for Breeding Stock 

For stock intended for breeding purposes the ration should 
not be too narrow, as a ration too rich in protein is too forcing. 
A nutritive ratio of 1 : 6 is advised during the winter months. 
Whole grains are best for the breeders, and they should be fed 
so as to encourage exercise. In the breeding season, when an 
abundance of eggs is required, the ration can be narrowed to 
1 : 5. The following ration is recommended for the breeding 
stock if they are kept separate from the general flock. 

Ration No. VIII. Winter ration for breeding stock. 

Grain mixture: Mash: 

Wheat 35 lbs. Wheat bran 25 lbs. 

Cracked corn 40 lbs. Ground oats 50 lbs. 

Hulled oats 25 lbs. Corn meal 20 lbs. 

Meat scrap 5 lbs. 

100 lbs. 100 lbs. 

This ration has a nutritive ratio of 1 : 6. One-half pound 
of fine table salt and three to five pounds of charcoal are advised 
for each hundred pounds of mash. 

Ration for the Molting Season 

Feathers are rich in nitrogen and sulphur. For their pro- 
duction a narrow ration, or one rich in protein, is required. 
The molting season usually begins in earnest in September 
and as that is the season when there are weather changes and 
[50] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

the demand of the body is for an increased supply of heat, corn 

is indicated as a liberal portion of the diet. Probably the best 

nutritive ratio for the production of feathers is 1 : 4 or even 

narrower. The following will be found of value in this critical 

season. 

Ration No. IX. For the molt. Nutritive ratio required, 1:4. 

Grain mixture: Mash: 

Cracked corn 40 lbs. Corn meal 40 lbs. 

Wheat 40 lbs. Wheat bran 30 lbs. 

Hulled oats 20 lbs. Meat meal 20 lbs. 

O. P. oil meal 10 lbs. 



100 lbs. 100 lbs. 

The nutritive ratio of this ration is 1 : 4.2. Wheat can be 
used solely, replacing the other grains, and the same ratio will 
be preserved. 

Ration to Fatten Market Fowls 

A large percentage of farm poultry goes to market without 
any preparation. What the farmer loses by this failure to con- 
dition his fowls is gained by the packers and others who make 
a business of fattening the thin stuff which reaches the com- 
mission merchant. With little pains and expense the farmer 
could reap this profit. Fowls that come from the range are 
not tender, their meat is tough and stringy. A few days in 
the fattening room or crate makes a wonderful change in the 
quality of the meat. A fattening ration requires a narrow 
ratio. In a former chapter it was pointed out that the excess 
of carbohydrate, over and above the requirements of the 
fowl's body, is converted into fat ; the same is true of the excess 
of protein. The fattening ration should be rich in carbohy- 
drate, but the protein constituent should not be overlooked. 
The ratio usually advised is 1:3. Probably a ratio of 1 : 4 
would answer just as well. A very crude method of fattening 
is to confine the fowls and place before them whole corn and 
water. The nutritive ratio of corn is 1 : 7.5. This ration is 
too wide ; more variety is needed. Protein is the great fat 
former and should be a prominent factor in a fattening ration. 
The following ration is recommended. 

Ration No. X. For fattening for the market. 

Corn meal 100 lbs. 

Oat meal 100 lbs. 

Bran 25 lbs. 

Meat meal 50 lbs. 

Skim milk or buttermilk 600 lbs. 

[51] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 




Sprouted oats are a good source of green feed for winter layers 

This mixture provides a nutritive ratio of 1:3. This is 
very narrow and is, therefore, very rich in protein. If the mash 
can be cooked before feeding, it will add to its palatability and 
its digestibility, and thus shorten the period required for 
fattening. About two pounds of milk should be used for each 
pound of mash. A small amount of grit should be accessible 
during the period. The mash should be placed in troughs, just 
what the fowls will clean up, and supplied about three times 
during the day. After each feeding any material left over 
should be removed and the troughs cleaned. This is intensive 
feeding and will make a severe tax upon the digestive organs. 
The period required for fattening is about 10 days. 

Fowls fattened by this method will be juicy and tender 
and should command the top price on the market. 

Things to Remember 

1. A balanced ration is the most economical, insuring 
rapid growth and profitable production. 

2. The regular ration must be supplemented with grit, 
water, milk, ash and succulent feeds. 

3. Dusty, moldy and damp litter is a menace. 

4. Cleanliness is a corner stone of successful feeding. 

5. Overfeeding is dangerous. 

6. Underfeeding leads to disappointment. 

7. Regularity in feeding means a contented flock. 

8. Home grown feeds are more reliable than others. They 
have no fillers. 

[52] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

9. Crude fiber is indigestible and should be avoided. 
10. The ration should be adapted to the season and the 
needs of the flock. 




[53 



Chapter V 

The Finished Product 

THUS far we have considered the factory with its compli- 
cated machinery, the workmen, invisible but countless 
in number, and the raw material in multiplied forms. Now 
our study concerns the finished product, consisting of the 
edible carcass, the egg and the byproducts. 

The Carcass 

The flesh of poultry is highly prized. A fowl properly 
conditioned, well cooked and served is both appetizing and 
nutritious. 

The process of fattening has been considered in the pre- 
ceding chapter. When ready for the market or the table, food 
should be withheld from fowls for a day until the crop and 
intestines become empty. They should have an abundance of 
clean water to flush out the system and at the same time keep 
the flesh plump and juicy. For the same reason fowls intended 
for home consumption should be deprived of solid food for at 
least 12 hours, and provided with plenty of water. 

Killing. The method of killing is very simple. Instead of 
wringing the neck, according to an ancient custom, a process 
which interferes with free bleeding, a knife is used to sever 
the arteries in the throat. The blade should be long and sharp. 
Seize the head in the left hand, and with the right hand insert 
the blade in the mouth until the point reaches the base of the 
skull. Make a transverse cut on the left side, severing the 
arteries of the neck. If there is free bleeding, the blade should 
then be forced through the slit in the roof of the mouth back- 
wards into the brain and then given a twist. This produces 
paralysis and means death without pain and with very little 
struggling. During the process of killing and while being 
plucked, the fowl should be suspended by a cord. This method 
of killing results in loosening the feathers so that dry picking 
becomes an easy task. 

[54] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Dry plucking is the common rule with turkeys, ducks and 
geese. If plucking is done promptly after sticking it can be 
practiced with chickens. It gives the carcass a more attractive 
appearance. Another method of killing and plucking is to 
use a table or bench. The beak is fastened to a screw hook. 
J-ust under the head of the fowl is a hole in the bench through 
which the blood passes to a receptacle below. That portion of 
the bench on which the body rests is padded to prevent bruis- 
ing. The legs are held with the left hand while with right 
hand the incision is made on the left side of head just behind 
the earlobe. Plucking is done immediately. By this method 
more rapid progress can be made. During plucking the 
feathers should be sorted and graded. The feet and head 
should not be severed. 

Plumping is accomplished by plunging the carcass into 
cold water. While the parts are flexible the wings and head 
should be adjusted so as to make a compact package. 

Scalding. Some prefer scalding to dry picking. The water 
for scalding should be of correct temperature, 180 degrees. If 
too hot the skin becomes shrunken and is easily torn in pluck- 
ing, and the carcass becomes discolored. Properly done, 
however, this method results in a very attractive carcass. Be- 
fore plumping it is customary to singe the down, and this is 
best done with a gas or alcohol flame. 

Cleaning. All fowls designed for market are left undrawn. 
They keep better in this condition as they are not exposed to 
flies and bacteria. In dressing a fowl for home consumption 
it is customary first to remove the feet and head. Then a 
transverse slit is made at a point about half way between the 
lower point of the keel and the vent. It should be about two 
inches long. From the middle of this incision another cut is 
made longitudinally to the vent and around the same, so that 
when the viscera are removed they will come clean. It is a 
good plan to remove the crop, oesophagus and trachea first. 
This is done through an incision made on the side of neck. If 
the crop is removed first it will be much easier to remove the 
viscera, which will come clean without leakage. 

Packing. Dressed poultry can be packed in barrels or 
boxes. A layer of excelsior or clean straw is laid in bottom of 
receptacle, then a layer of dressed fowls with feet extending 
outward, then excelsior, then another layer of carcasses, 'arid 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

so on till the barrel is full. Any empty space at the top should 
be filled with excelsior, straw, or paper. If any leakage 
appears, such as might soil other specimens, it is a good plan 
to plug the vent and mouth with sterilized cotton. After 
putting on cover and carefully labeling, the package may be 
shipped by express. A receipt always should be taken. Insist 
that the expressman weigh the package, so that you will have 
an official check against the commission man's weights. 

Types of Market Poultry 

Broilers. A broiler is a young chicken two to three months 
old and weighing \y> pounds to three pounds. Broilers, 
especially those that reach a late spring or early summer 
market, command high prices and are very profitable. Surplus 
and undesirable cockerels should be culled and sold when 
prices are high. 

A squab is a young pigeon or duck not fully fledged, yet 
fat and fit for human consumption. Squab farming is practised 
to considerable extent and profitably in some sections. 

A roaster is a matured fowl, fat and fit for roasting. 

A capon is a de-sexed cockerel. Capons are docile and 
easily handled. They make rapid growth and attain large size, 
much larger than the standard weight for the breed. The 
flesh of the capon is superior and it commands the highest 
market price. The demand is greater than the supply. Cock- 
erels are usually produced at a loss, but when they are con- 
verted into capons, on account of the rapid growth, large size, 
and better price, they become profitable. They should not be 
marketed until matured and well fattened. In plucking them, 
the feathers of the upper neck, the flight feathers and the tail 
feathers should not be removed, the object of this being to 
distinguish them from other fowl. 

Caponizing. Instruments can be secured of any reliable 
poultry supply house. The time to caponize is from three to 
six months of age. The operation requires care and some skill, 
but any person handy with tools can do the work with a little 
practice. 

The bird is placed upon its left side and held to the table 
by weights attached by cords to feet and wings. The skin over 
the right side is drawn forward and an incision made between 
the last two ribs. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

The incision should be about an inch long. The spreader 
is now applied to keep the aperture open. A slit is made in the 
omentum, or membrane surrounding the intestines, and the 
intestines are pushed to one side until the testes are seen. One 
or both of these is seized by the special forceps made for the 
purpose and by a twist they are severed and then removed. 
When both glands are removed from the same opening it is 
advised to remove the lower one first, so that bleeding will not 
interfere in removing the remaining one. Losses in this 
operation usually occur by the severing of the spermatic artery 
which lies behind the glands. In that case the chick bleeds to 
death, but its carcass is perfectly good for home consumption. 
As soon as the spreader is removed the skin closes over the 
opening, and the wound soon heals without any stitching. 

Caponizing should be more generally practised. A larger 
supply would mean an increased demand and greater profits 
to the industry, so that both producer and consumer would be 
benefited. 




The spreader in placing, tearing open the membranes. Note how the bird is held in position 
by weights attached to wings and feet 



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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 




The testicles can be observed between the jaws of the spreader 



The Egg 

The egg is the chief end of poultry production. It is the 
real thing in poultry culture, the goal toward which every 
producer aspires, for it furnishes the promised reward for his 
labors. It furnishes the ideal food for human consumption, 
the protein so necessary to build protoplasm, cells and tissues 
for the human body, and the yolk of the egg is rich in vita- 
mines, or growth principles, without which the animal 
organism would fail to grow and maintain health. 

Many fowl and other farm animals fail to develop properly, 
becoming emaciated and diseased, because the food supplied 
is wanting in these growth-producing substances. So it is 
with children. If not supplied with food rich in growth 
principles they fail to develop normally. 

So also the brain worker or manual laborer requires food 
of this character that his physical and mental powers may 
function normally and vigorously. Eggs, therefore, make an 
ideal food for children and for all upon whom heavy demands 
are made, either physical or mental. They are not appreciated 
because they are so cheap. Like milk they provide a perfect 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

food from which all the structures of the animal organism can 
be produced — bone, muscle, nerve, and connective tissue. 

Origin of an Egg 

Every animal organism is produced from an egg, that is, 
from a primordial cell, which corresponds to the initial cell 
from which every poultry egg is derived. The ovary of a hen 
contains from 800 to 7000 egg possibilities. An examination 
in the laying season shows the yolks, or ovules, in various 
stages of development, from the smallest, which are merely 
microscopic points, oocytes, to the fully formed yolk ready to 
be discharged into the oviduct. 

Not all of these undeveloped ovules ripen into mature eggs. 
The average annual production of a farm hen is not more than 
70 eggs. The poultry breeder is content to secure 300 to 400 
eggs from each hen in his flock, yet hens have been known to 
produce more than 1,000 eggs in a lifetime. 

The Poultry Department of Purdue University has pro- 
duced a hen, Joan of Arc, which has laid 1,064 eggs. 

The Experiment Station of Oregon Agricultural College 
has developed twenty hens with trap-nest records of more than 
1,000 eggs each. The highest record was made by a hybrid hen 
containing Barred Rock and White Leghorn blood. In her 
ninth year she died leaving a total production record of 1,335 
eggs. Undoubtedly this is the world's highest egg-record for 
an individual hen. 

How is an Egg Formed? 

The ovary lies in a delicate membrane known as the ovi-sac. 
The ovi-sac surrounding each developing yolk is generally 
known as the follicle. Under the stimulus of suitable food, 
exercise and warmth, the initial cells from which the yolks are 
formed begin to grow. As they develop, successive layers of 
albumen are deposited. This material is furnished from the 
blood through the blood vessels of the follicle. Immediately 
surrounding the yolk a delicate membrane is formed known as 
the vitelline membrane. 

Upon the surface of the yolk lies the germinal vesicle. This 
is the living germ cell with which the sperm cell must fuse to 
produce the embryonic cell from which the embryonic chick 
is developed. When the yolk is ripe, or fully matured, the 

[59] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

follicle cleaves and allows it to escape. By some strange 
attraction it is drawn to the mouth of the oviduct, known as 
the infundibulum, and enters the tortuous tube where its 
development is carried on to completion. 

The walls of the oviduct are lined with a network of blood 
vessels which furnish the material for the further development 
of the egg. In the upper portion of the oviduct the albumen 
is secreted and deposited around the yolk in layers. In the 
middle portion and toward the lower end, the two membranes 
are formed around the albumen. The outer membrane is 
covered with carbonate of lime, which is secreted and deposited 
just before the egg passes into the cloaca. This is called the 
shell of the egg. 

The cloaca is a pouch at the end of the oviduct sufficiently 
large to receive the egg. Here a secretion is formed and de- 
posited upon the shell. This film in a measure makes the shell 
impervious to germs and other harmful substances and pre- 
vents the evaporation of the egg contents. The egg is now 
fully formed and ready to be laid. The time required for the 
development of the yolk in the ovary is about three weeks; 
but, after the egg enters the oviduct, only 18 hours are re- 
quired for its completion. It is evident, therefore, that two 
eggs may be in the oviduct at the same time, especially during 
the height of the laying season. 

Structure of an Egg 

The accompanying diagram illustrates the structure of a 
normal egg. Beginning with the outside, an enumeration of 
the various structures comprises the following : 

1. The shell, porous to admit air and hard for protection. 

2. Exterior membrane, a tough membrane calculated to exclude 
germs and harmful substances. 

3. The inner membrane immediately surrounding the albumen. 
This envelops the developing chick and turns with the chick as it pips 
the shell. The air space at the large end of the egg is between the two 
membranes. 

4. The albumen, or white, of the egg, which is formed in concen- 
tric layers around the yolk. 

5. Vitelline membrane, a delicate membrane surrounding the yolk. 

6. Dense layer of albumen. This is just outside the vitelline mem- 
brane. 

7. Yolk, the yellow layers of albumen just within the vitelline mem- 
brane. The yellow color is due to globules of fat. The white yolk is in 
the center surrounded by the yellow yolk. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 




8 

The important parts of an egg are discussed in the text 

8. Chalazae, twisted cords of albumen which are attached to op- 
posite poles of the yolk and serve to steady its position in the albumen. 

9. Germinal vesicle, the living germ cell, or nucleus, which lies 
upon the surface of the yolk, recognized as a white spot. It may be 
fertilized or not. As the germinal vesicle lies upon the surface of the 
yolk it is easily reached by the sperm cells. 

Fertility and Fertilization 

An egg becomes fertile when the sperm (male) cell fuses 
with the germ (female) cell. This does not always occur, so 
that many eggs remain infertile. Where does fertilization 
take place? Evidently not in the cloaca, nor in the lower 
portion of the oviduct, for the shell and membranes and al- 
bumen would interfere in these regions. Fertilization must 
take place either at the mouth of the oviduct or in the ovary, 
possibly in both places. The oviduct is about 18 inches in 
length ; and for the spermatazoa to swim from the cloaca to 
the infundibulum requires several hours, as this distance must 
be traversed before they can reach the unfertilized germ cells 

It is quite probable that some of the sperm cells find their 
way into the ovary, as there is evidence that several eggs may 
be fertilized as the result of a single copulation. In the case 
of turkeys and geese one copulation seems to be all that is 
necessary to fertilize all the eggs of a cycle, or clutch. It is 
possible that the sperm cells remain alive in the oviduct for 

[61] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 




6#("c 



Egg types, showing variation in size, also illustrating how the eggs may decrease in size 
from the first egg of the clutch to the last 

a long period and that each germ cell is fertilized as it is dis- 
charged into the infundibulum. It is not unlikely that the 
spermatozoa gain access to the ovary and that all the eggs of 
the clutch are fertilized very soon after copulation. 

How long after a male bird is introduced into a pen before 
the eggs will become fertile? The sperm cells are provided 
with slender tail-like filaments, or flagellar, with which they 
propel themselves by a whip-like motion, and it is quite 
probable that some of them reach the mouth of the oviduct 
within 24 hours. Some eggs, therefore, may be fertile within 
two or three days. Certainly, in five to 10 days all eggs should 
be fertile if conditions are normal. 

Detecting Infertility and Sex of Eggs 

To detect whether an egg is fertile or not before incubation 
is a problem vital to the poultry industry. After a few days of 
required temperature fertile eggs show plainly the developing 
embryo, whereas the infertile egg gives no such evidence. 
After the infertile egg has been subjected to heat in this 
manner for several days it loses its freshness and is subject to 
decay much more than the fresh egg. It is, therefore, unfit for 
market but may be used for cooking purposes in the home. 

As the embryonic cell in a fertile egg differs somewhat in 
structure from an infertile cell, being enveloped with a distinct 
ring, it has been thought that fertility and non-fertility could 
be detected by a powerful lens, but the structural characters 
are so delicate and the shell and membranes offer such inter- 
ference to light that this method will probably prove im- 
practical. 

It is not impossible that an instrument will yet be devised 
that will determine not only fertility but the sex of the embryo. 

[62] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Sex is fixed at the time of fusion of the two sexed cells and it is 
determined by the chromosomes of the germ cell. Science has 
accomplished greater things than the problem here presented. 

To be able to detect the infertile eggs before subjecting 
them to the heat of the incubator would be a great boon to 
the poultry industry. These are the eggs that should -be 
shipped to market, because they have greater keeping quali- 
ties than fertilized eggs. It would mean a saving of 25 per 
cent of all the eggs used for incubation. 

If sex could be determined and the poultryman desired to 
produce more pullets than cockerels, eggs with pullet germs 
could be selected for the incubator. The theories that sex is 
developed after incubation, that large and long eggs produce 
males while small and short eggs produce females, that the 
first eggs of a clutch usually produce males and those towards 
the end of the clutch produce females, and that eggs with 
rough ends produce males while those with smooth ends pro- 
duce females, may, some of them, have a grain of truth but 
they cannot be relied upon as infallible. 

Abnormal Eggs 

We have discussed the development and structure of the 
normal egg. Under certain unfavorable conditions abnormali- 
ties occur. It is well to understand these conditions, as it is 
possible sometimes to correct them. 

A double-yolked egg is formed when two yolks are 
matured and discharged into the oviduct at the same time. A 
common coat of albumen, membranes and shell are formed 
around these making a single egg. 

Eggs with blood spots are caused by the rupture of a blood 
vessel when the follicle cleaves to allow the escape of the yolk. 
The clot of blood formed escapes into the oviduct and is in- 
corporated in the egg as it is surrounded by the albumen. 
Such eggs are good for food, as the blood spot does not affect 
the contents of the egg and may be easily removed. 

Bloody eggs arise from some injury, disease or hemor- 
rhage in the oviduct. The blood from the walls of the oviduct 
becomes distributed through the albumen, and such eggs are 
not fit for food. 

A yolkless egg is formed when some foreign substance 
gains access to the oviduct through the cloaca. It serves as a 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 




A good home made egg tester 



nucleus around which the albumen is deposited and eventually 
the outer membranes and shell. 

A double egg is an egg within an egg and is formed when 
the original egg by some cause is forced back into the oviduct. 
A new layer of albumen is formed around it and, as it passes 
onward, a new shell is formed. Thus we have the strange 
phenomenon of an egg within an egg, an egg with two layers 
of albumen and two shells. 

Wormy eggs are caused by the passage of worms from the 
cloaca into the oviduct, where they become enveloped by the 
albumen before the shell is formed. 

Stale fresh-laid eggs, which are foul in odor and offensive 
in taste, may be traced to individual hens and may be due 
either to the feed consumed or to a diseased condition of the 
egg organs. 

Gangrene or vent gleet of the cloaca, inflammation of the 
oviduct, or a disease of the ovary might account for this con- 
dition. Probably, however, the retention of the egg in the 
body of the hen, resulting in incubation and finally decom- 
position, is the best explanation of this phenomenon, at least 
this is the most common cause. Sometimes, when deprived 
of sufficient ash, hens will eat their own droppings, and this 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

might affect the eggs. The remedy is to find the guilty hens 
and dispose of them. 

Incubation 

Incubation is the development of the embryo within the 
egg, and is to be distinguished from fertilization, which is the 
fusion of the sperm and germ cells. The period of incubation 
is 21 days, though it may range from 18 to 24 days, depending 
on the time occupied in supplying the required number of heat 
units. If the temperature is run at too high a degree, the time 
of hatching is hastened ; if at too low a degree, it is delayed. 
The normal temperature for incubation is 103° Fahr. Any 
drop below 90° or rise above 107° is considered dangerous 
to the hatch. The low temperature is least objectionable. 

Eggs will sometimes hatch if allowed to cool for 24 hours 
in a room of moderate temperature, but such treatment un- 
doubtedly results in weakened vitality. An excess of heat is 
more disastrous because it coagulates the albumen and hardens 
the yolk before it is absorbed into the body of the chick, causes 
the chicks to stick to the shell in hatching, causes many chicks 
to die in the shell, and produces a batch of weaklings that will 
never thrive. 

Room Temperature for Eggs 

As an egg will incubate if kept in a room for any consider- 
able time at a temperature of 70° Fahr. and as the germ will be 
injured or destroyed if allowed to go below 30°, it is important 
to know just how to regulate the temperature for eggs intended 
for incubation. The correct room temperature is 60° Fahr,, 
though a range of five degrees above or below this point will 
do no harm. A temperature of 50° Fahr. is correct for market 
eggs. 

Size and Weight of Eggs 

The standard weight of a dozen market eggs is 24 ounces, 
and such eggs are of average size. Abnormally large eggs 
usually have a double yolk. An abnormally small egg may be 
the first egg of a pullet or the last egg of a cycle, or clutch. 
When very small, it is devoid of yolk. Eggs vary in weight, 
even though of the same size, due to the density of the egg 
contents. The size and weight of an egg are determined to 
some extent by the breed producing it. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

The Minorca lays a white egg, and so large that a dozen 
will weigh 30 ounces. The Rhode Island Red and Plymouth 
Rock egg is large and heavy, the average for these breeds 
being about 26 ounces. In the Vineland, New Jersey, egg- 
laying contests it was found that the Rhode Island Red eggs 
were heavier than those of any other dual purpose breed. 
Leghorns and other Mediterranean breeds lay smaller eggs 
than do the American breeds, though the White Leghorn may 
be counted an exception to the rule. This breed has been 
cultivated for large eggs, so that they compare favorably in 
size with larger breeds. 

The specific gravity of an egg can be tested by placing it 
in a vessel of water. If the air space is small, the egg contents 
filling the shell, the egg will lie on its side on the bottom of 
the vessel. If the contents are well evaporated, leaving a 
large air cell, the egg may float on the surface of the water. 
Between these two extremes there are gradations in specific 
gravity, the determining factor being the size of the air cell. 
Egg testers are on the market for determining specific gravity. 
The higher the specific gravity the greater the food value of 
the egg contents. Only eggs of high specific gravity should be 
placed in storage. 

Color of Eggs 

The color of eggs is due to pigments derived from the 
blood. The pigment is deposited with the carbonate of lime at 
the time that the shell is formed. The color gradually fades 
as the hen approaches the end of her laying period. Undoubt- 
edly egg-production has some connection with the fading of 
the feathers during the laying period. Mottled and variegated 
eggs occur and arise from the peculiarities of individual hens. 

Whether the contents of a white-shelled egg have less 
nutritive value than the contents of a brown-shelled egg is a 
subject worthy of investigation. White eggs receive prefer- 
ence in New York city, but in Boston brown eggs are pre- 
ferred. In the western states an egg is an egg, whatever the 
color. In marketing, if eggs are graded according to color it 
adds to the appearance and undoubtedly appeals to critical 
buyers. 



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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 
Shape of Eggs 

The shape of an egg is determined by the character of the 
oviduct. The contraction of the oviduct forces the egg on- 
ward in its course. This contraction is behind the egg, there- 
fore the small end of the egg- is at this point, the large end 
being toward the outside. If the oviduct is small the tendency 
will be to make a long egg, if it is large the tendency is toward 
a round egg. Round eggs are larger in diameter than long 
eggs, as a rule. Eggs that are abnormal in shape are caused 
by some abnormal condition in the oviduct. 

Round and elongated eggs should never be used for incuba- 
tion because it is difficult, if not impossible, for chicks to ex- 
tricate themselves from the shells. Pullets produced from 
such eggs will lay eggs of similar shape. Such eggs are diffi- 
cult to pack, the round ones being too large in diameter and 
the long ones too long for the ordinary container. By careful 
selection from year to year a uniform type of egg can be 
established for the flock. Uniformity in product means pleased 
customers and better prices. 

Composition of an Egg 

An egg is 66 per cent water*and 34 per cent solid or semi- 
solid matter. The solid matter comprises combinations of the 
following elements : Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sul- 
phur, phosphorus, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, 
iron, silicon and chlorine. These elements are combined in 
substances known as protein, ash and fat. The following table 
shows the percentages of these substances in the whole egg, 
the white, and the yolk. 

Table No. Ill — Composition of egg. 

Water Protein Ash Fat 

Percent Percent Percent Percent 

Whole egg 65.9 12.83 10.68 10.59 

White 87.0 12.00 0.20 0.80 

Yolk 50.0 16.00 1.00 33.00 

Reference to the above table shows the materials which 
enter into an egg. What better proof do we need of the im- 
portance of providing in the ration all the elements required 
to manufacture this finished product? If any one of these is 
lacking the development of the egg is prevented, or at least 
delayed until the missing material is supplied. As well un- 
dertake to build a house without lumber and nails or an engine 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

without iron as to make hens lay without the materials re- 
quired for the manufacture of an egg. Water is needed, as 
66 per cent of the egg is water. Here is where many fail. 
Eggs cannot be produced in winter without an abundance of 
water. If the water supply ceases the hens suddenly quit. 

Protein is required as it comprises 13 per cent of the whole 
egg and 16 per cent of the yolk. It must be supplied in a bal- 
anced ration. Protein of animal origin seems to be the most 
helpful in egg production, hence skim milk, dried buttermilk, 
fish scrap, meat scrap and tankage are recommended to supply 
this need. 

Ash enters into all the structures of an egg, but is especially 
needed in the shell in the form of carbonate of lime, hence 
oyster shell is used to supply this need. 

Fat constitutes one-third of the weight of the yolk, and as, 
in the process of egg building, the yolk is the first to be devel- 
oped we are reminded that a hen must be fat or in good con- 
dition before she can engage in productive laying. The fat 
of her body is appropriated to build the yolk. This suggests 
the importance of carbohydrates and proteids in due propor- 
tion in the laying ration. The reader is referred to Chapter IV, 
where the subject of feeding rations is fully discussed. 




Mr. Osburn feeding his turkeys 



68 




Eggs from hidden nests are always open to suspicion. They shouid always be candled 
before they are sold. 



[69] 



Chapter VI 

Eggs and By-products 

ABOUT 35 per cent of all eggs are consumed by the pro- 
ducer. As it is good business to sell the best that cus- 
tomers may be pleased and a reputation for quality established, 
it is important to cull for home use. 

Culling for Home Use 

Small eggs should be kept for home consumption. They 
are as good in quality as the larger eggs, but they reduce the 
weight of a dozen below standard requirements and are not in 
favor with purchasers. 

Dirty eggs should be kept at home. If freshly gathered 
their quality is not impaired and, as there can be prompt con- 
sumption in the home, they can be washed without harm, 
whereas washed eggs should never be marketed on account 
of their poor keeping quality. 

Large and elongated eggs should be culled for home use as 
they are liable to breakage in an ordinary container. 

Cracked eggs have such poor keeping quality and are so 
likely to become leakers and damage many others that they 
should be kept for home consumption. 

Frozen eggs can be used in the household but are not safe 
to ship. 

All eggs of doubtful quality should be kept at home. Such 
are eggs upon which hens have been allowed to sit for a short 
period, infertile eggs from the incubator, stale eggs from newly 
found nests, and bloody eggs or eggs containing blood spots 
or any foreign matter. 

Eggs with blood spots, blood rings, mold and rot can be 
culled out with an ordinary egg tester. Incubator eggs should 
never be sent to market because their freshness is destroyed 
by a few hours of heat, and they are liable to spoil before they 
reach the consumer. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Keeping, Preserving and Storing Eggs 

Infertile eggs keep the best, hence the slogan "Swat the 
Rooster" (after the breeding season) is a good one. A cool 
dry cellar is the most desirable place to keep eggs. The tem- 
perature should not be allowed to go above 70° nor below 35°, 
the correct temperature being 50°. The place where they are 
kept should be clean and sweet. Foul odors injure the quality, 
and dampness produces mold. Eggs for the incubator should 
be turned daily and may be kept in cabinets having drawers 
with movable, slatted bottoms. 

Every producer should preserve eggs for future home con- 
sumption. November is the lean month, and a few dozen eggs 
stored for this season of scarcity will be greatly appreciated. 
Further, such eggs can be sold as storage eggs when the 
prices are high. The time to do this is in the time of plenty 
when eggs are cheap. 

Three methods of preserving eggs are in use. 

1. Preserving in salt. This method is very simple and 
requires only a good tight box with a quantity of salt. The 
eggs are packed in the salt, a layer at a time, until the box is 
filled. The eggs for preserving should be clean and fresh. If 
there is any doubt about their freshness, they should be can- 
dled. Place the container in a cool place, and the eggs will 
keep several months. Infertile eggs for this purpose can be 
obtained by removing the males from the flock for two or three 
weeks. 

2. Preserving with lime water. This method is considered 
more satisfactory than the salt method. Dissolve about three 
pounds of unslaked lime in a small quantity of water and 
then add about seven gallons of water sterilized by boiling. 
Use a five gallon or a ten gallon crock and, after scalding it, 
place the eggs in position and pour upon them the clear solu- 
tion of lime water. Enough water should be added to cover 
the eggs about two inches. 

3. Preserving with water glass. This is the most satis- 
factory method, though more expensive. If a five gallon crock 
is used it should be cleaned thoroughly and scalded. Then 
pour into it nine quarts of water that has been sterilized by 
boiling and to this add one quart of water glass (sodium 
silicate) and put the eggs in carefully so as not to crack the 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

shells. The solution should always cover the eggs for one or 
two inches. When the crock or jar is full it should receive a 
tight cover and be set in a cool place. 

The principle involved in these methods is that of keeping 
from the egg any bacteria or other harmful substances that 
might cause decay. Some follow the practice of dipping the 
eggs first in the water glass solution, and then allowing them 
to dry. When the water glass sets it effectually closes the 
pores of the egg. It is then put into the crock and held until 
ready for consumption. Preserved eggs, intended for boiling, 
should be punctured with a needle in the large end to allow 
the escape of the expanding air, else they will crack. 

Collecting Eggs 

To keep eggs clean change the nesting material occasional- 
ly. To prevent cracking or breaking when the eggs are laid 
use an abundance of nesting material. It is a good plan to 
cover the bottom of the nest box with sand or clean soil before 
adding the material. Coarse straw is not very satisfactory. 
Cut straw or chaff is better. A layer of fine wild hay makes 
an excellent bed for the nest box. Blind checks and dents are 
often due to a bare nest box. Hens cultivate the egg-eating 
habit by reason of broken eggs in faulty nests. 

Collect eggs carefully in a vessel kept especially for the 
purpose. It should be lined with soft material to reduce the 
danger of breakage. An oval basket answers well for this pur- 
pose. In cold weather eggs intended for hatching should be 
collected twice a day to prevent chilling. The same is true in 
summer to prevent incubation. If the producer is catering 
to a private trade and desires fancy eggs, they should be 
gathered twice daily to prevent soiling. In ordinary weather 
and conditions, it will be sufficient to collect the eggs once a 
day. 

Egg Losses 

The chief losses of eggs on the farm are from the following 
causes: 

1. Neglect in gathering. 

2. Incubation by natural heat. 

3. Freezing. 

4. Keeping in damp or warm room. 

5. Loss in the incubator. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

6. Breaking, either in the nest or from careless handling. 

7. Vermin. 

8. Filthy conditions. 

9. Careless packing. 

All of these losses can be reduced by the producer and, if 
the carrier, jobber and retailer would cooperate, it would mean 
the saving of $50,000,000 annually, or a half billion dollars in 
a decade. 

Testing Eggs 

Testing or candling eggs is easily accomplished by placing 
the egg between a strong light and the eye. Testers are made 
especially for this purpose. The electric tester is probably 
the most satisfactory. 

In candling for market the following defective eggs are de- 
tected and rejected: 

Checks, eggs with cracked shells. 

Blood rings, eggs in which incubation has started but the 
germ has died. 

Broken yolks, eggs in which the vitelline membrane has 
ruptured and the contents of the yolk are diffused through the 
albumen. 

Spots ; these show a dead immovable germ or some foreign 
substance in the egg or a clot of blood. 

Shrunken eggs, which are indicated by the large air cell. 

Rots, in which decomposition has set in and the contents 
appear black. 

Eggs intended for hatching should be tested before being 
set, and all that show the above characteristics should be 
thrown out. 

Testing out Infertile Eggs 

It is customary to test eggs under incubation on the sev- 
enth to the tenth day and again on the fifteenth to the 
eighteenth day. The test is made in a warm room. The tray 
from the incubator is placed on a low table and two baskets 
are provided, one to receive the infertile eggs and the other 
for those with dead germs and otherwise defective. Infertile 
eggs will appear perfectly clear. Dead germs will often be 
found adhering to the shell membrane. Shrunken eggs will 
show an excessively large air space. If the air space is filled 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

up the egg is getting too much moisture. Cloudy eggs are 
defective and indicate a breaking up of the egg contents. 
Other defects will appear, and with a little practice the operator 
will soon learn to detect the eggs with strong germs. 

The By-Products 

It is claimed that the great packing establishments in Chi- 
cago make their profits largely on the by-products. Every- 
thing is saved and utilized — the hair, blood, viscera, bones and 
excreta. Some of the manufactured goods are bone meal, gran- 
ulated bone, meat scrap, meat meal, tankage, blood meal and 
fertilizer. 

The chief by-products of poultry are the feathers and the 
fertilizer. 

Feathers 

What is a feather? It is a modified scale, being derived 
from the skin, or epidermis. The types of feathers are the 
perfect, the downy and the hairy. The hairy type is illus- 
trated in the hairs that remain on a fowl after plucking and 
which are usually removed by singeing. Down is the type 
of feather found in the day-old chick and upon ducks and 
geese after the outer feathers are removed. The perfect type 
is developed after hatching and is described below. 

The structure of a feather includes the following parts : 

Quill, the naked hollow barrel which is inserted into the skin. 

Shaft, which is a continuation of the quill. It is rectangular in cross- 
section. 

Vane, the expanded portions of the feather attached to the sides 
of the shaft. 

The vane consists of the barbs, which are branches from the shaft; 
the barbules, branches from the barbs; and barbicels, branches from the 
barbules. The barbules and barbicels have hooklets by means of which 
these structures are interlocked. Thus, by these overlapping and inter- 
locking parts, the vane, or web, is formed. This makes the feather very 
resistant to air in flight. 

Composition of a feather. The feather is composed of a 
large percentage of silica. The organic constituent consists 
approximately as follows : Carbon, 50 per cent ; hydrogen, 6 
per cent; nitrogen, 17 per cent; oxygen, 23 per cent; sulphur, 
4 per cent. 

The abundance of nitrogen in the composition suggests the 
importance of a nitrogenous diet during the molt. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 
Molting of Feathers 

This is the shedding of the feathers and the growth of a 
new supply. Some birds molt twice a year, in the fall when 
they put on their winter clothes preparatory to cold weather 
and in the spring when they put on their breeding dress. 

As a rule, however, there is but one molt, in the fall of the 
year, the change in plumage which occurs in the spring being 
but an increase in coloring matter. During the winter the 
plumage is often of a protective nature, resembling the somber 
colors of that season. Chickens and other domestic fowls 
undergo a complete molt in the summer or fall. 

The growth of new feathers makes a severe drain upon 
the vitality of a fowl. It must have a very important bearing 
upon egg-production, for when a hen molts the surplus food 
is required to make feathers, and egg-production naturally 
ceases. Some hens molt so gradually and the draught upon 
the vital forces is so moderate at any one time that they keep 
on laying through a portion of the molt. Others seem to shed 
their feathers in a day. Then folloAvs a long period in which 
new feathers must be grown, and that means a period of rest 
from egg-production. 

It is claimed that the early molter is the poor layer. This 
is not necessarily so. To illustrate, a good laying pullet may 
continue laying until early summer. She becomes broody 
and, if allowed to sit too long, she loses flesh, in which con- 
dition she is not able to resume egg-production. If such a 
bird is broken of her broodiness and suddenly put on a heavy 
nitrogenous diet she may be forced into an early molt. To 
cull her from the flock for this reason would be unjust. 

It has been proved that the period of molting can be con- 
trolled by the system of feeding. Hens that are put on a 
starvation diet for two weeks and then fed heavily will often 
molt out of season, even in midsummer. When the egg-ration 
is withdrawn they cease to lay, when they cease laying they 
begin to molt. It is also probable that the exact time of molt- 
ing is affected by the time of hatching. Pullets hatched very 
early usually molt in the fall. I have known March hatched 
cockerels to molt in October. Pullets hatched late may miss 
the fall molt but will molt the following summer and yet be 
very good layers. To prevent the summer molt it is necessary 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

to provide an egg-producing ration, so that the hens may be 
kept laying as long as possible. 

Late molters are good layers. This is a very safe rule. 
They lay more eggs than the early layers because the laying 
season continues through a longer period. If a hen molts late 
she will have a shorter rest period. Feathers shed during the 
molting season are lost for commercial purposes. The time 
required to produce a complete new dress is about three 
months. 

Uses of Feathers 

Here are some of the commercial uses of feathers : 
They are used for the manufacture of pillows, beds, cush- 
ions, ornaments for apparel, toys, dusters, fans, muffs, feather 
bone, feather board and brooders. In Three Oaks, Michigan, 
is a large factory which utilizes the tail feathers of turkeys 
for the manufacture of featherbone and feather board. These 
articles are used in making corsets and other apparel for 
women. Feathers are always in demand and meet ready sale 
if properly prepared. 

Preparing Feathers for Market 

Dry-picked feathers are preferred to those plucked after 
scalding. Scalded feathers must be thoroughly dried before 
shipping. White feathers command a better price than colored. 
The most valuable are the down and fine feathers of geese. 
The fine feathers of chickens also command a good price, es- 
pecially if dry-picked. Feathers should be graded for market 
and the different grades packed separately. 

In picking turkeys, save all the feathers that grow on the 
tail, also those on the two joints of the wing next the body. 
The pointed, one-sided feathers, or primaries, that grow on 
the end of the wing sell at a low price and should be kept 
separate from the others. 

In packing, lay quill feathers straight in as light boxes as 
possible. If stuffed into bags they become broken. Body 
feathers should be shipped in burlap sacks. Chicken feathers 
should be forked over to allow the animal heat to escape and 
to assist in drying. Dampness mats them together and in 
that event they are liable to arrive at market in a heated or 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

moldy condition. If quill feathers are mixed in with the body 
feathers it will mean a cut in the price. 

Fertilizer 

Poultry manure is rich in nitrogen and hence is a very 
valuable fertilizer. It is usually used on the garden, where a 
very rich soil is necessary. Poultry manure loses strength 
rapidly when piled outdoors. It should be spread on the soil 
as soon as possible. Do not mix poultry manure with wood 
ashes or lime, as this causes a rapid loss of nitrogen. 

A tight dropping board under the roost saves the droppings 
and keeps the floor clean. It is a good thing to sprinkle the 
dropping board with some good absorbent, such as peat, saw- 
dust or sifted coal ashes. The dropping board should be 
cleaned off once or twice a week. 

Many millions of dollars are lost annually by failure to 
utilize the by-products of poultry. The wise poultryman will 
gather up the crumbs that nothing may be lost. 



\77\ 



Chapter VII 

The Puzzle of the Breeds 

THERE are 149 varieties of land and water fowl recognized 
by the American Poultry Association. Of these. 121 are 
chickens, 15 are ducks, seven are geese and six are turkeys. 
These varieties represent 60 breeds and 15 general classes. 
Who can measure the thought and patience and skill required 
to produce these results? Scientific work of a high order, 
carried on through many years, has been necessary, and much 
credit must be given constructive breeders for the service they 
have rendered. 

What is a Breed? 

The term class is applied to a group of breeds having a 
common origin and a close resemblance in type. To illustrate, 
the Asiatic class is represented by Cochins, Brahmas and 
Eangshans, breeds that have originated in Asia, and there is 
a resemblance in structural characters. 

A breed is a group of individuals having a common type. 
Breed is determined more by shape than by color. There may 
be several varieties of the same breed. For example, the 
Plymouth Rock breed which belongs to the American class, 
embraces six varieties, but all of these have a common re- 
semblance in shape. 

A variety is a group of individuals which have common 
color patterns as well as the shape characteristic of the breed. 
The White Plymouth Rock is a variety of the Plymouth Rock 
breed. 

A strain is a group under a variety. It is produced by in- 
breeding in the hands of the expert breeder. The Hawkins 
strain of Barred Rocks, the Tompkins strain of Rhode Island 
Reds and the Barron strain of White Leghorns are good illus- 
trations. A strain comprises individuals which excel in shape. 
color or egg-production, and this is brought about by the skill 
of the breeder. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 
How to Select a Breed 

A purebred fowl is one that breeds true to breed character- 
istics. There may be an occasional exception, but this is due 
to reversion, the fowl breeding back to some ancestor. If 
mated differently this same fowl might breed true. This ten- 
dency to revert is overcome by inbreeding. 

Is the Purebred Worth While? 

Every breed has points of excellence. If it were not so, 
it would have perished in the making. Is the farmer better 
off with a purebred flock? In this connection let us note: — 

1. That it costs no more to feed a purebred than a mongrel. 

2. That the purebred is more attractive and will command greater 
interest and receive better care than the mongrel, and will therefore 
prove more profitable. In the development of a purebred, vigor and 
high production are emphasized as well as fine feathers, so it will be 
more productive than the mongrel, which, on account of promiscuous 
breeding, will be found wanting. 

3. The purebred will produce a uniform product in carcass and egg, 
and this means an appeal to the purchaser, insuring a ready market 
and top prices. 

4. There are sources of income from a purebred flock not found with 
the mongrel, such as eggs for hatching, day-old chicks, and breeding 
stock. 

5. When farms are located near each other and a farmer has his 
separate breed, he can indentify his own stock in case of accidental 
mixing. 

6. Purebred fowls create a special interest among young people, ap- 
pealing to the nobler sentiments. This benefit alone is worth all the 
extra expense in establishing the flock. 

It is a matter of great interest and encouragement that so 
many purebred flocks are being established on the farms. It 
is a safe estimate that more than 50 per cent of the flocks in 
the states of leading production are comprised of standard bred 
fowls. The tourist along country highways cannot fail to be 
impressed with the growing interest in purebred poultry. 

What is the Best Breed? 

It is commonly stated that one breed is as good as another. 
This statement should not go unchallenged. There is a best 
breed for the individual, the environment, the end to be at- 
tained, and the location of the farm or plant. 

The best breed for the individual must be determined by 
his own likes and dislikes. If he has a nervous temperament 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

he will undoubtedly choose an Orpington in preference to a 
nervous Leghorn. If bright colors appeal he will probably 
overlook the Black Langshan. It is the appeal to the in- 
dividual that usually determines the breed selected. It would 
be unwise to select a breed toward which there is any aversion. 
The question of environment may determine the best breed 
to be chosen. For a severely cold climate a Light Brahma 
would have preferences over a Leghorn. A hot climate would 
not be suited to the Buff Cochin. If the soil is damp and 
poorly drained and surroundings unfavorable, a breed of great 
physical stamina would be the best. 




Single comb Rhode Island Red cockerel 



The end sought should have some influence in determining 
what is the best breed. If market fowls are desired it would 
be unwise to select the Leghorn, Hamburg, or Andalusian, but 
a meat breed should be selected. If eggs are the aim, then an 
egg breed is best. The location with reference to market 
should be a determining factor. A breed producing white 
eggs would be indicated for locations near New York City and 
San Francisco, but near Boston and other localities, the breed 
of the brown egg would be the best. There is a best breed. 
How to determine it is not always an easy task. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 
How to Select a Breed 

Having - considered well the soil, the climate and the loca- 
tion, the first thing to determine is the character of breed that 
will meet the conditions and fulfill the aim of the producer. 
Breeds are classified as meat breeds, dual-purpose breeds, 
egg breeds and fancy breeds. A meat breed is one whose ten- 
dency is to lay on flesh. Such breeds are large, docile, good 
feeders, but, as a rule, poor layers. The egg breeds have been 
trained for egg-production by years of careful selection. They 
are usually small in size, not heavy eaters, do not fatten readily, 
and make poor market fowls. They have the faculty of turn- 
ing the food into eggs and this is done at less expense than by 
the heavier breeds. They are as a rule nervous and excitable, 
but can be trained to become very friendly. The dual-purpose 
breeds partake of the qualities of the two classes just defined. 

The leading dual-purpose breeds are of American origin. 
They range between the meat breeds and the egg breeds in 
size. They make choice table fowls and at the same time are 
good egg-producers. The fancy breeds are those cultivated 
because of certain marked peculiarities of shape and color. 
They appeal to the fancy of the breeder and are bred as a 
matter of interest and pleasure, rather than as a source of 
profit. 

Which one of these classes shall the poultry-keeper select? 
The average farmer will select the dual-purpose breed. The 
commercial poultryman, whose plant is near the great city, 
will select an egg breed if he wishes to cater to the market for 
choice eggs. If his aim is to produce the finished carcass, he 
will select a heavier breed. The amateur, whose aim is to 
satisfy his interest in the fancy, will select a breed of that 
character. 

But there are several breeds of each class and it is some- 
times very difficult to make a definite choice. If the dual- 
purpose class has been chosen, the individual must decide 
whether to adopt the Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, Rhode 
Island Red, Orpington, or another of the several general- 
purpose breeds. Having decided on the breed, there remains 
the still difficult task of selecting the variety. This may be de- 
termined by his own fancy or by his knowledge of some good 
variety, or by the variety of some good breeder in whom he 
has confidence and whose advice he is willing to consider. * 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

After the variety is chosen then he must decide upon the 
strain, for he knows well that if he would make rapid progress 
he should secure his foundation stock from an established 
strain. If he does not do this he will have to build a strain 
of his own and this will require years of patient effort. 

At least 75 per cent of all purebred flocks are on the farms, 
and farmers not only furnish the demand for purebred stock 
produced by the exclusive fancier and are the means of per- 
petuating existing breeds, but many of them are constructive 
breeders and are to be credited with producing new breeds 
or making improvements on those already established. 

Standard of Perfection 

It would be unwise to undertake in the limited compass 
of this book even a brief description of all the standard varie- 
ties of poultry. For full and accurate descriptions of all recog- 
nized breeds the reader is referred to the "Standard of Per- 
fection" published by the American Poultry Association. This 
excellent book can be secured from Prairie Farmer's Book 
Bureau. Every farmer or fancier who is building a pure- 
bred flock will receive great help by securing a copy of this 
book. 

Key to Poultry Breeds 

The following key to the recognized poultry breeds is ac- 
knowledged to be brief and incomplete. The descriptions are 
only suggestive, but may help the beginner in his selection of 
a breed and in identifying at least the more common breeds. 

Class I. American Breeds: Dual-purpose breeds of American 
origin, medium size, clean legs. 

Breed No. 1. — Plymouth Rock: With long, broad and deep body with full breast. 
Cock, 9% lbs.; hen, iy z lbs. 
Varieties: 

(1) All feathers barred white and dark Barred Plymouth Rock 

(2) Plumage pure white in all sections White Plymouth Rock 

(3) Plumage rich buff in all sections Buff Plymouth Rock 

(4) Black and white with pencilings Silver-Penciled Plymouth Rock 

(5) Red, brown and black, with pencilings Partridge Plymouth Rock 

(6) White, with black in hackle, wings and tail Columbian Plymouth Rock 

Breed No. 2. — Wyandotte: Body short, broad, deep and round. Rose comb. Cock, 
8% lbs.; hen, 6^ lbs. 

Varieties: 

(1) Pure white in all sections White Wyandotte 

(2) Pure buff in all sections Buff Wyandotte 

(3) Greenish black in all sections Black Wyandotte 

(4) Black with silver lacing Silver Wyandotte 

(5) Black with golden lacing Golden Wyandotte 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

(6) Black and white with pencilings Silver-Penciled Wyandotte 

(7) Red, brown and black with pencilings Partridge Wyandotte 

(8) White, with black in hackle, wings and tail Columbian Wyandotte 

Breed No. 3. — Javas: Single comb, long back. Cock, 9% lbs.; hen, 7% lbs. 

Varieties: 

( 1 ) Black with greenish sheen Black Java 

(2) Mottled black and white Mottled Java. 

Breed No. 4. — Dominiques: Rose comb; back with concave sweep, medium length and 
broad. Cock, 7 lbs.; ten, 5 lbs. 

Varieties: 

(1) Irregular bars of slate and white American Dominique 

Breed No. 5. — Rhode Island Red: Back broad and long, breast full, body oblong, 
closely feathered. Cock, 8% lbs.; hen, 6 J4 lbs. 

Varieties : 

(1) Rich red, black in tail and wings, rose comb Rose Comb Rhode Island Red 

(2) Single comb Single Comb Rhode Island Red 

Breed No. 6. — Buckeye: Broad and long back, rounded breast. Cock, 9 lbs.; hen, 6% 
lbs. 

Variety: 
(1) Color mahogany bay, pea comb American Buckeye 

Class II. Asiatic breeds: Legs and toes feathered, large size, meat 
breeds. 

Breed No. 1. — Cochins: Round and plump body, single comb. Cock, 11 lbs.; hen, 
8y 2 lbs. 

Varieties:' 

(1) Prevailing color buff Buff Cochin 

(2) Plumage white White Cochin 

(3 )Plumage black Black Cochin 

(4) Prevailing colors black and red. . . . .' Partridge Cochin 

Breed No. 2. — Brahmas: Body long, compact, closely feathered. Pea comb. Cock, 
12 lbs.; hen, 9Vz lbs. 
Varieties: 

(1) • White, except black in hackle, wings and tail Light Brahma. 

(2) Plumage black and white Dark Brahma 

Breed No. 3. — Langshans: Short body with concave sweep to back; single comb. 
Cock, 9V 2 lbs.; hen, 7V 2 lbs. 

Varieties: 

(1) Plumage black Black Langshan 

(2) Plumage white White Langshan 

Class III. Mediterranean breeds : Body slender and small, graceful 
carriage. Legs and toes clean. Egg breeds. 

Breed No. 1. — Leghorns: Moderately long body, yellow legs, white ear lobes; 
sprightly carriage. 
Varieties: 

(1) Plumage white, rose or single comb White Leghorn 

(2) Plumage brown and black, rose or single comb Brown Leghorn 

(3) Plumage buff, rose or single comb Buff Leghorn 

(4) Plumage black, single comb Black Leghorn 

(5) Silvery white, with black in hackle, single comb Silver Leghorn 

(6) Orange, red, salmon, white Red Pyle Leghorn 

Breed No. 2. — Minorcas: Large size, long body. Cock, 9 lbs.; hen, 7% lbs. 

Varieties: 

(1) Plumage black, rose or single comb Black Minorca 

(2) Plumage white, rose or single comb White Minorca 

(3) Plumage buff, single comb Buff Minorca 

Breed No. 3. — Black Spanish: Plumage black; ear lobes and face white. Cock, 8 lbs.; 

hen, 6Yz lbs White-Faced Black Spanish 

Breed No. 4. — Andalusians: Leghorn type, medium size, graceful carriage. Cock, 6 

lbs. ; hen, 5 lbs. Plumage blue Blue Andalusian 

Breed No. 5. — Anconas: Leghorn type. Cock, 5Yz lbs.; hen, 4% lbs. 

(1) Plumage mottled black and white Mottled Ancona 



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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Class IV. English Breeds: Dual purpose breeds, excelling in meat 
qualities. Medium to large size. 

Breed No. 1. — Dorkings: Body broad, oblong, low-set; five toes; single comb. Cock, 
7Y 2 lbs.; hen, 6 lbs. 
Varieties: 

(1) Plumage white White Dorkings 

(2) Colors white, black and salmon Silver Gray Dorking 

(3) Colors black, straw, salmon, gray; 4-toes Colored Dorking 

Breed No. 2. — Redcap: Body long, cylindrical. Rose comb. 

(1) Predominating colors, red and bay English Red Cap 

Breed No. 3. — Orpingtons: Large size. Body long, broad and deep. Legs and 
skin white. Cock, 10 lbs.; hen, 8 lbs. 
Varieties : 

(1) Plumage white in all sections White Orpington 

(2) Plumage buff in all sections Buff Orpington 

(3) Plumage black in all sections Black Orpington 

(4) Plumage blue in all sections Blue Orpington 

Breed No. 4. — Cornish: Broad breast and back, upright carriage, pea comb, stout legs. 
Cock, 10 lbs.; hen, 7y 2 lbs. 

Varieties: 
CI) Plumage greenish black Dark Cornish 

(2) Plumage white , White Cornish 

(3) Plumage red, with white lacing White-laced Red Cornish 

Breed No. S. — Sussex: Body oblong; legs, skin and flesh white. Cock, 9 lbs.; hen, 

7 lbs. 

Varieties: 

( 1 ) Reddish brown, white speckled Speckled Sussex 

(2) Mahogany red Red Sussex 

Class V. Polish Breeds: Moderate size, prominent crest. 

Breed No. 1. — Polish: Body medium length, tapering toward rear. Pea comb. Moderate 

Varieties: 

(1) White crest White-crested Black Polish 

(2) Golden crest and beard Bearded Golden Polish 

(3) Plumage white, with black lacing Bearded Silver Polish 

(4) Plumage white Bearded White Polish 

(5) Plumage buff, laced with pale buff Buff -laced Polish 

(6) Without beard Golden Non-bearded Polish 

(7) Without beard Silver Non-bearded Polish 

(8) Without beard White Non-bearded Polish 

Class VI. Hamburgs: Small size, brilliant colors, white ear lobes, 
blue shanks. 

Breed No. 1. — Hamburgs: Body round, prominent breast, rose comb. 
Varieties: 

(1) Golden bay, with black spangles Golden Spangled Hamburg 

(2) Silvery white, with black spangles Silver Spangled Hamburg 

(3) Reddish bay, penciled black Golden Penciled Hamburg 

(4) Silvery white, penciled black Silver Penciled Hamburg 

(5) Pure White... White Hamburg 

(6) Greenish Black Black Hamburg 

Class VII. French Breeds : Dual purpose breeds, excelling in table 
qualities; V-shaped comb. 

Breed No. 1. — Houdans: Crest and beard, toes five. Cock, 7*£ lbs.; hen, 6^ lbs. 
Varieties: 

(1) Plumage black and white Mottled Houdans 

(2) Plumage white Whijte Houdans 

Breed No. 2. — Crevecoeurs: Back broad, breast full, body compact, legs short. Cock, 

8 lbs.; hen, 7 lbs. 

( 1 ) Plumage black, crest present Crevecoeur 

Breed No. 3. — La Fleche: Without crest. Large and powerful body. Cock, Syl lbs.; 
hen, 7y 2 lbs. 



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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

(1) Plumage, glossy black La Fleche 

Breed No. 4. — Faverolles: Single comb and with beard and muffs. Cock, 8 lbs.; 
hen, 6V 2 lbs. 

(1)- Colors, salmon, brown, and black Salmon Faverolles 

Class VIII. Continental: Egg breeds, active, productive. 

Breed No. 1. — Campines: Long body, full breast, single comb. Cock, 6 lbs.; hen, 4 lbs. 
Varieties: 

(1) Greenish-black barred with white Silver Campines 

(2) Greenish-black barred with golden bay Golden Campines 

Class IX. Games and Game Bantams: Comprise two breeds and 
sixteen varieties. 

Class X. Orientals, including Black Sumatras and Malays, three 
breeds and three varieties. 

Class XL Ornamental Bantams, eight breeds and nineteen varieties. 

Class XII. Miscellaneous Breeds, including Silkies, Sultans and 
Frizzles. 

Class XIII. Ducks. 

Breeds Varieties 

Pekin White 

Aylesbury White 

Rouen Colored 

Cayuga ; Black 

Call Gray 

Call White 

East India Black 

Muscovy Colored 

Muscovy ; White 

Swedish Blue 

Buff ..Buff 

Crested White 

Runner Fawn and White 

Runner White 

Runner Penciled 

Class XIV. Geese. 

Breeds Varieties 

Toulouse .'' Gray 

Emden White 

African African 

Chinese Brown 

Chinese White 

Wild / Gray 

Egyptian Colored 

Class XV. Turkeys. 

Breed Varieties 

fBronze 
„ , | Narragansett 

Turkeys \ White Holland 

| Black 
| Slate 
[Bourbon Red 

Every breed in this remarkable list has a history. It may 
be that all chickens hark back to a common ancestry, and the 
same may be true of ducks, geese and turkeys. Under the 
laws of selection (natural or artificial), variation, and pre- 
potency original characters have been changed and by in- 
breeding new types have been established. Much of the past 

[85] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

history of every breed is covered from human knowledge, so 
that our knowledge of the origin of any breed or variety is 
very limited. The near-origin of some of the breeds is quite 
well known. It may be helpful to cite a few of the more pop- 
ular breeds, giving their supposed origin and some of their 
valuable characteristics. 

Origin and Value of Popular Breeds 

To know the origin of a breed puts the poultry-keeper in 
possession of the good and bad characters of the ancestral 
breeds and enables him to conduct his breeding operations in 
such a way as to eliminate the undesirable qualities. To know 
the points of value in the breed of his choice enables him in 
the care and feeding of his flock to emphasize and improve 
these qualities. There are other breeds than those named that 
are just as good from a utility or aesthetic standpoint as those 
given, but these are the breeds that seem to the writer to be 
most common on the farms. They probably represent 90 per 
cent of all farm poultry. 




Barred Plymouth Rock Pullet, Oblong type 



Barred Plymouth Rocks 

This is pre-eminently the farmers' breed, though its popu- 
larity has waned in some degree since the appearance of other 
breeds that vie with it in excellence. As to its origin, it is 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

claimed to have been produced from the American Dominique 
as a foundation, and upon this foundation have been placed 
several different courses of breeding. In this view the Barred 
Rock can have more than one origin, but the consensus of 
opinion is that Asiatic breeds crossed upon the Dominique 
are the source of the modern Barred Rock. Dark and light 
specimens appear in the breeding, and this necessitates a 




Pullet Bred Barred Plymouth Rock Cockerel 

double system of mating as necessary in order to produce 
specimens of show-bird excellence. In recent years the two 
sub-varieties are judged separately, and there are some breed- 
ers who breed one type to the exclusion of the other. The 
tendency of the female is to become darker in color and of the 
male to become lighter. This prevents uniformity and the 
fault is overcome by double mating. 

The Barred Rock is a splendid dual-purpose breed. The 
chicks grow rapidly and are thrifty. The flesh is highly prized. 
They are good layers in all seasons if fed for egg-production. 
The hens are good sitters and mothers. Eggs are large and 
heavy and, as the flesh surpasses in tenderness and quality, 
they are in great demand in the markets. The pictures on this 
and the preceding page show a typical cockerel and pullet of 
this popular breed. 



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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

White Plymouth Rock 

This variety originated as a sport from the Barred Rock, 
and its color was fixed by inbreeding. White Rocks have 
made a strong appeal to the farmer, and it is quite a common 
thing to see large flocks. They make an attractive picture on 
the lawn or meadow. The development of this variety has 
been in good hands, so that strains, such as the Fishel and 
Halbach, have been developed which excel as market speci- 
mens and surpass in egg-production. At the national egg- 
laying contest at Mountain Grove, Mo., Lady Show-you, a 
White Rock hen, attracted world-wide interest by defeating 
all entrants by laying 281 eggs in twelve months. In keeping 
the breed pure the disqualifications to be avoided are side- 
sprigs on comb, feathers on legs, white in ear-lobes, or black 
in plumage. 




Columbian Wyandotte Pullet showing the 
round type of body characteristic of the 
Wyandotte — 

White Wyandotte 

The Silver Wyandotte is of American origin, several breed- 
ers having contributed toward its production. French, Ham- 
burg and Asiatic breeds were used. The White Wyandotte 
is a sport from the Silver Wyandotte. The plumage, is pure 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

white, ear lobes red, and shanks yellow. The comb is rose. 
A single comb or a foreign color in any section is to be 
avoided. This breed has a host of enthusiastic admirers. It 
is famous for egg-production and the quality of the meat pro- 
duced probably excels that of the Plymouth Rock. It is repre- 
sented in some of the large commercial egg-farms and is a 
common breed on the farm. 

Rhode Island Red 

The Rhode Island Red embraces two varieties, the Rose 
Comb and the Single Comb. These are alike in all respects 
except the comb. The Rhode Island Red is of American 
origin and takes its name from the state where it is believed 
to have originated. The breeds entering into its composition 
are the Cochin China, the Black-breasted Red Malay, and the 
Brown Leghorn. 

On account of its composite character, it is a breed difficult 
to breed true to shape and color. By the law of reversion 
there is a constant tendency to throw specimens that are off 
in type or color. It will require time to breed out this ten- 
dency. Marked improvement in the breed has been made in 
recent years. The Rhode Island Red is a hardy fowl, excelling 
in winter egg-production and is also an excellent table fowl. 
For these reasons the breed is in great demand. 

The chief objection to it is the inclination to broodiness 
during the summer months. As sitters and mothers the hens 
excel. Chicks make rapid growth and choice broilers are made 
at an early age. Pullets mature in seven months. Eggs are 
large and smooth in outline, the number of abnormal eggs 
being remarkably few. This breed is giving the Barred Rock 
a close race for supremacy on the farm. 

Buff Orpington 

All varieties of Orpingtons were originated by William 
Cook of Orpington, England. They are good general purpose 
fowls, excelling in the quantity and quality of meat which they 
furnish. In egg-production they do not equal the American 
breeds, but they are considered very good winter layers. The 
hens are good sitters and mothers; indeed they are so per- 
sistent in sitting that this habit is counted against them. The 
legs, skin, and meat are white. The white flesh is objected to 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

in some localities, but this unwise prejudice will disappear 
in time because of their real merit as market fowls. Orping- 
tons have a strong tendency to have feathers on toes and 
shanks because of their origin. This disqualification must be 
guarded against. 

The White Orpington is almost as popular as the Buff. 
It has the same excellent qualities, but the color is white. 




Single Comb Buff Orpington hen, wedge type 
to round 

Light Brahma 

Of the meat breeds probably the Light Brahma is bred 
more extensively than any other. It is of Asiatic origin. It 
has been used to good advantage in forming some of the 
American breeds. It is a handsome breed, excelling in meat 
production, and is a fair layer. It is noted for vigor and pre- 
potency, and is docile, and for that reason may be kept easily 
in confinement. Pullets develop to laying maturity in about 
ten months. 

Black Langshan 

The Black Langshan is a handsome breed and not uncom- 
mon on the farm. It is a good layer, the skin and flesh are 
white. As a table fowl it stands in good repute. It is con- 
sidered a hardy breed. Like the Brahma it is of Asiatic origin. 

[90] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 
The White Leghorn 

This breed is of Italian origin. Since its introduction into 
the United States it has been so wonderfully improved that 
the original stock suffers by comparison. English breeders 
come to this country for their supply of birds. The White 




White Leghorn Hen, Oblong type 

Leghorn, as found in America, is supreme in egg-production. 
Its popularity is evident in every state, but on the Atlantic 
and Pacific coasts where the great commercial egg factories 
are found, this breed is most abundant. 

Mottled Ancona 

The Ancona is a breed of Italian origin and is being recog- 
nized as one of the greatest of egg-machines. It is more or 
less abundant on the farms, and is certain to increase in popu- 
larity in all sections where egg-production is of prime im- 
portance. The egg is white, of good size, and is produced 
economically. The general color of the breed is black with 
about every fifth feather tipped with white. 

Campines 

Silver and Golden Campines have been bred in northern 
Europe for many years. They have the egg-type of the Medi- 
terranean breeds and are believed to have come originally from 
the shores of the Mediterranean. The general color is white 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

with the feathers barred with distinct bands of white or golden 
bay, according- to the variety. 

They are hardy, vigorous, great hustlers and wonderful 
egg-machines. They are gaining in popularity in this coun- 
try on account of their remarkable foraging habits, subsisting 
where other fowls would perish. 

DUCKS 

Duck culture is quite general on the farms of the United 
States, though on a limited scale. There is the meat type and 
the egg type. In some sections duck culture is carried on 
very extensively, as in the Long Island district. 

Pekin Duck 

This breed was introduced from China and is now well 
distributed throughout the United States. It is the most 
popular meat breed and is used almost exclusively on the great 
commercial cluck farms of the East. Squabs are sold at eight 
to ten weeks of age, when they weigh 4^ lbs. to 6 lbs. 
The Pekin has a long, broad and deep body and the plumage 
is creamy white. A black bean in drake or foreign color in 
plumage disqualifies. 

The drake weighs 9 lbs. and the duck, 8 lbs. This duck 
lays about 100 eggs in a season, and the fertility is usually 
good. 

The Aylesbury Duck 

This duck is of English origin and is probably next to the 
Pekin in utility and popularity. It differs from the Pekin in 
having a horizontal carriage instead of upright, the beak is 
pale, flesh-colored instead of orange-yellow, the shanks and 
toes are light orange instead of reddish orange, and the plum- 
age is pure white instead of creamy white. The weights are 
same as those of the Pekin. It is a good layer, a fine market 
duck, and well adapted to commercial farming. 

GEESE 

Six breeds of geese are recognized, Toulouse, Emden, Afri- 
can, Chinese, Canadian or Wild, and Egyptian. 

The Gray Toulouse, named from the city of Toulouse in 
South France, is extensively bred on account of its large size 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

and good market qualities. The goose is a good layer, pro- 
ducing 20 to 35 eggs in a season. The color is gray, shading 
into white on abdomen. The gander weighs 26 lbs. and the 
goose, 20 lbs. The sexes resemble each other, but can usually 
be distinguished. 




Emden Goose 

The Emden goose is a native of Germany, taking its name 
from the city of Emden, which was the central market for 
the geese of a large district. The gander weighs 20 lbs. and 
the goose 18 lbs. This is a hardy, popular and profitable breed. 

TURKEYS 

There are six varieties of turkeys, all originating from the 
Wild Turkey of America. They still retain their wild in- 
stincts, but some varieties are more domestic than others. 

The Bronze turkey is the most popular of all breeds on 
the farm. The general color is bronze, but in some sections 
are black and white bars. The torn weighs 30 lbs. and the hen 
18 lbs. It is extensively bred, almost to the exclusion of the 
other breeds. 

The Bourbon Red is probably next in popularity to the 
Bronze. It is more domestic than the Bronze and the flesh 
is considered of finer quality. This variety has replaced the 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Buff turkey in the standard because it is bred more abundant- 
ly and is bred true to color with greater ease. The Buff turkey 
was difficult to breed true to standard requirements, but, on 
account of its domestic habits, rapid maturity, and fine table 




White Holland Turkey Fowl 

qualities, is still retained by a number of breeders. The color 
of the Bourbon is a rich dark bay, the wings and tails being 
white. The adult torn weighs 30 lbs. and the hen 18 lbs. 

The White Holland is a sport from the other breeds. It 
is now bred to large size by infusion of blood from Bronze 
sports. It is especially valued as a market fowl, and the 
feathers are much prized. 



[94] 



Chapter VIII 

The Breeding Problem 



BREEDING is a process by which a race is established, 
improved and perpetuated. This process may be natural 
or artificial. Natural breeding requires long periods of time 
to fix the characters of a race so that it can become entitled 
to specific rank. Such a race, when once established, becomes 
fixed and permanent and reproduces its kind. The Mourning 
Dove may illustrate. Its characters have become fixed by 
natural inbreeding. It is a species. Its sexes do not pair with 
other species. 

In artificial breeding, however, the human element enters 
as a controlling influence. The selection is artificial. Man 
selects the foundation stock, mates the sexes, and determines 
the environment. He follows a system of inbreeding that fixes 
the type. The result may be the Silver Campine or the Golden 
Campine. These varieties of chickens have a right to specific 
rank just as the Golden-winged Woodpecker and the Red- 
shafted Flicker which closely resemble in type but differ in 
color. 

The difference between the Flicker and the Campine is that 
the former is more permanent. The Campine persists as long 
as its destiny is presided over by the mind of man. As soon 
as his guiding hand is removed the species relapses. Then 
follow cross-breeding, interbreeding, and a rapid retreat to the 
jungle type. This might not occur if the group could be kept 
isolated from other varieties of chickens, and, in that event, 
it is probable that in time the species would become so fixed 
that there would be no attempt toward interbreeding. But, if 
the guiding hand of man should be withdrawn and the breeds 
of chickens were all thrown together, the 300-egg hen would 
soon disappear. All the beauty and utility acquired by the 
thought and patience of long years of endeavor would be 
quickly destroyed. Man's controlling influence must con- 
tinue, to retain what has been gained. To establish and main- 
tain a race with desirable characters is the aim of breeding. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

The fundamental upon which all breeding rests is repro- 
duction. 

Reproduction 

Reproduction is the process by which the individual per- 
petuates its kind. This is accomplished by producing new in- 
dividuals. There are two kinds of reproduction, known as 
asexual and sexual. 

Asexual reproduction may occur with the higher forms ot 
plant life, as in the case of grafting and slipping, where there 
is no evidence of sex interference. As a rule, asexual repro- 
duction is found among the lower forms of life. 

Sexual reproduction occurs when one or two sexual cells 
unite to reproduce a plant or animal. Among plants the sex- 
ual elements are the spermatazoids and the oospheres. The 
sexual elements of animals are the spermatazoa and the ova. 
The varieties of sexual reproduction are conjugation, parthe- 
nogenesis, and fertilization. 

(a) Conjugation consists in the union of two similar cells. 
In this method the cells are structurally the same, but as the 
process is analagous to the sexual method — cytoplasm fusing 
with cytoplasm, and nucleus with nucleus — it is considered 
by the best authorities as sexual in character. Examples are 
found in diatoms and animalcules. 

(b) Parthenogenesis, or unisexual reproduction, is accom- 
plished by the female. A single sexual cell may be concerned 
or two cells of the same sex. Illustrations are found in the 
honey bee, where drones are produced by unfertilized eggs 
from the queen; also in the plant louse, whose female may go 
on producing broods of individuals for ten or more genera- 
tions without the intervention of the male. Then a male 
appears, and reproduction by male and female follows. 

(c) Bisexual reproduction, or fertilization, requires both 
male and female and is illustrated in all species of birds. 
Birds reproduce by means of an egg, or ovum, which is pro- 
duced by the female. The egg is really an enlarged cell, being 
much enlarged to provide room for the storage of nourish- 
ment. The real center of life in the egg is found on the surface 
of the yolk and is known as the germinal vesicle. 

Fertilization occurs when the spermatozoon, or sperm cell, 
fuses with the germinal vesicle. This cannot take place until 
after the spermatazoa gain access to the cloaca. This takes 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

place in copulation or it may be brought about artificially. 
After entering the cloaca, the spermatazoa swim to the in- 
fundibulum in the fluid secretions of the oviduct, and here is 
where fertilization takes place. The sperm cells collect at this 
point in numbers, so that when the yolk is discharged into 
the mouth of the ovary they are ready to penetrate the germ- 
inal vesicle. 

They must have wonderful vitality and be capable of liv- 
ing many days, for hens have been known to produce fertile 
eggs for upwards of two weeks after the male has been re- 
moved from the pen. It is at the time of fertilization that sex 
is determined, not after the egg is laid, as some suppose, and 
the determining factor is the chromosomes. In the initial 
cell formed by the union of the two parent cells reside all the 
possibilities of the individual. Color, shape, temperament, pre- 
potency, and productive power are all wrapped up in this 
miscroscopic point. 

Laws of Reproduction 

Some of the laws of reproduction are stated below : 

1. Like produces like. A Wyandotte will produce a Wy- 
andotte. A single comb will produce a single comb. If this 
law did not prevail all efforts to produce and improve new 
breeds would be useless. 

2. When two individuals of divergent characters are inter- 
bred, some of the progeny will resemble the sire, others the 
dam ; some will show characters that hark back to the grand- 
parents, some will exhibit variations and a blending of the 
characters of sire .and dam. These facts enable us to under- 
stand why two unrelated birds of the same variety, though 
closely resembling in type and color, will produce specimens 
quite different in these respects from the parents. If we knew 
fully the history and peculiarities ,of the grandparents we 
could prophesy more accurately regarding the characters 
which would appear in the offspring. This also explains why 
a rose comb bred with a single comb will result in combs par- 
taking of the peculiarities of both ; why a white bird bred with 
a black will result in a mingling of the two. 

3. Atavism. While we are confident that like produces 
like, we must not forget that there are certain influences which 
seem to antagonize this law. Environment is one of these 
influences. Modifications in the color pattern of some birds 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

can be traced to climatic influence. So, also, injury or dietary- 
deficiency might account for foreign color in the plumage, 
where none is found in the ancestry. Another factor is dis- 
cordant elements that may have been introduced into the 
blood somewhere along the line of ancestry. These crop out 
and the law stated in paragraph one seems to be contradicted. 
It is not, however, for the blood contains the very elements 
which appear in the breeding. This tendency to revert to the 
characters of the original ancestry is known as atavism, or 
reversion, or "throwing back." I have in my flock of Reds a 
Brown Leghorn pullet which was hatched from an egg of one 
of my purebred hens. There has been no Brown Leghorn on 
the farm for 12 years. This pullet seemed to drop out of a 
clear sky. The cause is apparent. The Brown Leghorn was 
one of the foundation breeds of the Rhode Island Red. By 
the law of reversion this pullet was thrown on account of the 
influence of ancestral blood. Strange things are liable to 
happen under this law, yet it is true that like produces like. 

4. Variation. The more closely related the purebred sire 
and dam and the closer the resemblance they have in type and 
color, the less variation there will be in the progeny; that is, 
the more closely the offspring will resemble the parents. De- 
sirable characters have become fixed and the undesirable have 
been eliminated. This small amount of variation is because 
the blood lines are the same. This explains the advice some- 
times given, that if a breed is to be improved or a new strain 
established there must be close inbreeding, that the dam should 
be bred to her own brother or her own sire if there is a close 
resemblance in points of excellence. Many breeders believe 
that this close inbreeding weakens the vitality and under- 
mines the stamina of the progeny. On the other hand it is 
urged that such a probability is prevented by selecting for 
the sire and dam only individuals of marked vigor and vitality. 

5. Persistent and diminishing characters. AVhatever the 
mating may be, both sire and dam will have imperfections. 
These imperfections will show more or less in the progeny. If 
the desirable characters overbalance the imperfections the 
mating will be considered a success; and if, as the breeding- 
continues, the imperfections gradually disappear and the good 
qualities are intensified, then the breeder knows that he will 
be able to establish a worthy strain. If on the other hand the 
imperfections grow stronger and the desirable characters 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

diminish, it is evident that the line of breeding should be 
abandoned. A new mating should be tried. The tendency 
by which a character, on the one hand, persists and intensifies 
or, on the other hand, diminishes and disappears, we call the 
principle of "persistent and diminishing characters." Its 
operation is quite hidden from the view of the breeder. 
Whether the desirable characters will become fixed and in- 
tensified in any line of breeding or whether they will diminish 
and disappear depends on the blood lines represented in the 
sire and dam, upon the discordant elements that may have 
been introduced in the line of ancestry and have not been 
bred out, and upon the prepotency of the mates. 

6. Transmission. In sexual reproduction the male deter- 
mines color, fecundity and prepotency, while the female de- 
termines type, size, temperament, and vitality. If these state- 
ments are true, it follows that the male should excel in color, 
prepotency and fecundity. It has been found that trap-nested 
hens with high egg records do not reproduce the quality of 
high production, but if a male bred from a hen with a high 
record for production is used in the breeding pen, the in- 
variable result is an improvement of productiveness in all the 
offspring. If greater size is desired, large hens should be used 
for breeding. 

7. Intensifying defects. Similar defects must not be pres- 
ent in both sire and dam, else they will be intensified and never 
bred out. If a defect occurs in the female it must be offset 
by an excellence in the male. The practice of offsetting the 
evil with the good should be practiced on every farm where 
pen mating is used. It will work a marked improvement in 
the flock. 

8. Physical deformities in reproduction are the result of 
physical defects and occasionally may be due to injury or to 
malnutrition or to faulty incubation. 

We conclude, therefore, that the very essence of poultry 
breeding consists in the selection of variations which appeal 
to the breeder and so intensifying them by repetition that they 
become fixed characters. 

We have found that breeding is an artificial process, yet 
scientific. By it man seeks to mold and develop groups of 
individuals for the attainment of certain desired ends. There 
are several varieties of breeding which will be described in 
detail on the following pages. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Varieties of Breeding 

1. Mongrel breeding. This occurs when several varieties 
are thrown together and interbreeding is followed from year 
to year with little attention paid to selecting, culling and mat- 
ing. Often the best are selected for market, leaving the un- 
desirables to perpetuate the flock. This practice is fast dis- 
appearing from the farms, and the rule now is to find purebred 
flocks scattered through the farming districts in every county. 

2. Cross-breeding consists in breeding together two of the 
standard breeds or varieties. This is often done under the plea 
that crossing the two breeds increases size, vigor and pro- 
ductiveness. Occasionally some real benefit may appear but, 
if followed up indiscriminately, it will result in deterioration, 
and mongrelism will follow. However, cross-breeding is often 
used to advantage in producing new breeds and in breeding up 
a flock of poor quality to standard excellence. In this case 
new males of the same breed are purchased each year and, if 
this is followed up, a mongrel flock may be brought up to 
show-bird excellence. There is nothing to be condemned in 
this practice as it will result in better flocks than would be 
produced by mere mongrel breeding. 

3. In-breeding. When full brothers and sisters are bred 
together we call it in-breeding, and, if this is followed up from 
year to year, we call it in-and-in-breeding, or close in-breeding. 
In-breeding as described results in deterioration and is to be 
avoided as far as possible. If this system is used judiciously, 
selecting only strong and vigorous mates, it may be used in 
the hands of the expert to establish racial characters and breed 
out imperfections. We do not advise it for the average breeder. 
We know what happens when close relations intermarry in 
the human race. Every farmer knows from experience what 
happens to the herd of hogs or other farm animals if brothers 
and sisters are bred together year after year. There is de- 
terioration in size and vigor, and the herd becomes unprofit- 
able. Line breeding, however, as will be shown in a sub- 
sequent section, can be practiced by the farmer, even though 
his equipment is meager. 

4. Out-crossing. This consists in introducing new and un- 
related blood of the same variety into a pen or flock. This is 
a very common practice on the farm and occurs when new 
breeding cockerels of his breed are purchased from year to 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

year. Out-crossing avoids the degeneration which sometimes 
accompanies in-and-in-breeding but is attended with more or 
less risk. The new blood may contain some hereditary taint, 
entailing weakness or disease, or may lack in prepotency or 
represent an unproductive strain or possess blood which does 
not blend with the breeder's strain, thus destroying in a single 
season the work of long years of careful breeding. Out- 
crossing should not be unconditionally condemned, but the 
breeder should study the needs of his flock and fortify himself 
by a knowledge of the requirements of a good breeding male 
and purchase accordingly, and he will not be disappointed. 

It is usually safer to purchase females to introduce new 
blood than to undertake to do it through the male. The male 
is more than half the flock and, if an error is made in his pur- 
chase, the whole flock is injured. If an outstanding female is 
purchased and her blood blends with the breeder's strain, then 
her cockerels can be used to supply new blood for the whole 
flock. 

5. Line-breeding. This is a system of in-breeding by 
which vigor, shape, color and productive power are main- 
tained. By this system of breeding, size and vigor are often 
increased, there is no loss of prepotency or stamina, and de- 
sirable characters are established and maintained. Line breed- 
ing is begun by selecting foundation stock as near the ideal 
as it is possible to obtain. The breeder must study carefully 
the requirements of the Standard of Perfection, so that he 
may know all the disqualifications as well as the points of 
excellence of the breed. 

The picture that is made in his own mind after diligent 
study, is the ideal toward which he must strive. The ideal 
having been formed, he must select a female that has few de- 
fects and that possesses the shape, color, carriage and quality 
that measure up to his ideal. If he decides to have more than 
one female in the pen, they should be as closely related as pos- 
sible and should harmonize with the ideal. Each hen should 
be leg-banded, and all should be trap-nested, and the eggs from 
each dam numbered. When the chicks hatch they should be 
toe-marked or wing-tagged, so that the progeny of each hen 
can be identified when matured. 

The male should also conform to the ideal as closely as 
possible, and he should harmonize with the females. If there 
are any defects in the females they should be offset by cor- 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

responding points of excellence in the male, and vice versa. 
If the male selected is a cock, the females should be pullets; 
if the females are hens, the male should be a cockerel. Now 
it may happen that when more than one female is used it 
will be found that the progeny of one of the females is far 
superior to that produced by the others. In that event, her 
offspring should be chosen to continue the breeding line. The 
accompanying chart shows just how the mating can be made 
from year to year. It shows how a male line of breeding can 




Modern type half-monitor house with open front 



be established in which the blood of the male will predominate. 
Also a female line is established in which the blood of the 
original female predominates, and this is done without close 
inbreeding. In the third and fifth year the two lines can be 
brought together in such a way that the sire and dam used 
will not be closely related. The system advised is to use a 
sire unrelated to the dams. If this is done, and the blood of 
the sire harmonizes with that of the dam, then the breeding 
lines can be established and carried on without the necessity 
of using any close relationship in any of the matings. 

The points to be emphasized in selecting the foundation 
stock are vigor, type, color, productiveness and prepotency. 

[1021 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

A study of the chart will explain how these characters can be 
maintained without loss. 

Cautions 

If brother and sister are mated they should be of pro- 
nounced vigor, vitality and prepotency. 

If the first mating in line-breeding produces inferior stock, 
the mating should be abandoned and a new one tried. 

If occasionally a sport is thrown, the breeder should not 
be discouraged. By selecting the best each year this tendency 
will be overcome. 

If new blood is to be introduced into a strain it will be 
safer to do it through one or two choice females than through 
a male. 

If the original sire and dam are not closely related, there 
need be no close inbreeding. If they are closely related, how 
can two bloodlines be made out of one? 



103 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 



CHART OF I, ME BREEDING 





Flret Year 






Ckl.(A\^Cl-Maleesl/2 A+l/2 B 
Hen(|)r ^C2«FemaleB«l/2 A+l/2 






B 


Male Line. 


Second Tear 


Female Line. 


Coc.0^ 


^_ > ^)l-MaleB-3/4 A+l/4 B H"®--^-^ 
^^D2-Fem.=3/4 A+l/4 B CJcl. @f^ 


/-ElxVelee-1/4 A+3/4 B 


Pullet (c^f 


^2-7610.-1/4 A+3/4 B 




Third Year 




OooJr@^ 


^_^-Fl=Mele8-5/8 A+3/8 B Ckl. (?lL_ 
^-^F2=Femele8»5/8 A+3/8 B Hen (C2)r^ 


^Gl-!.!8leB«3/8 A+5/8 B 


Pullet (SSjT 


>52=Fem.-3/8 A+5/8 B 




Clcl- @^^JU=MeleB-l/2 A+l/2 B-^^ 
Pullet @T^-^fl2-Fem.rl/s A+l/2 &^^ 


^g)Ckl 
^Pullet 




fourth Yeer 





C 004 (Dl 

Pullet (f 



-Males-11/16 A+5/16 B Ckl. (Cl 

2=Fem. =11/16 A+5/16 B Hen (££ 



. (g^^^^-il-MaleBrll/16 A+5/16 B Cook(ElV^^,: 
^2)^"^^ > ^:2»Fein.rll/i6 A+5/16 B Pull. (^^Sil 



Cock(Di; 
Full (H2' 



Cook(Fl 
Pull . (12; 

Ckl. (S 
Hen 



l=Males=5/8 A+3/8 B 
2=Fem.=5/8 A+3/8 B 



Cook (El 



Pull . ft 

Fi fth Ye ar 

l"Mslee=21/32 A+ll/32 B Cock^ 
2=Fem. =21/32 A+ll/32 B Pull. (j2 

l=Melee=19/32 A+13/32 B Ckl . Ql 
2-Fem. -19/32 A+13/32 B Hen ^ 

Ckl.(Kl>^ .^JTl-Mele8-l/2 A + l/2 



Pull. (L 



2=Fem.=l/2 A+l/S B 



l-Melee-5/16 A+ll/16 B 
2=Fera.=5/16 A+ll/16 B 

Ll-Male3x5/16 A+ll/16 B 
t,2=Fem.-5/16 A+ll/16 B 

l=Meles«3/8 A+5/8 B 
2=Fem.«3/8 A+5/8 B 



l=Melee=ll/32 A+21/32 B 
P2=?em. =11/32 A+21/32 B 

l=M8les=13/32 A+19/32 B 
2=Fem. =13/32 A+19/32 B 



II) Ckl. 
JZ) Pullet 



[104] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 



Explanation of Chart 

A little study of the chart shows that there are three lines of 
matings. The first in which the blood of the original male predominates; 
another in which the blood of the original female predominates; and a 
third in which the mating results in offspring in which the blood of male 
is equal to that of the original dam. 

An outstanding cockerel having been found, he is mated to a hen or 
hens of equal quality. The cockerel is unrelated to the hens and is 
known as "A" and the hens as "B." The progeny comprise the group 
"C" of which half are cockerels, "CI," and the remainder are pullets, 
"C2." If the mating gives good results the line of breeding is continued. 

In the second year "A" is mated to his daughters "C2," and the off- 
spring from this mating comprise the group "D," and each individual in 
this group represents three fourths the blood of "A" and one fourth the 
blood of "B." 

In the same year another pen contains a cockerel "CI" from the first 
mating and he is mated to his dam "B." The result of this mating is 
group "E" consisting of cockerels "El" and pullets "E2," each individual 
containing one-fourth the blood of "A" and three-fourths the blood of 
"B." 

In the third year similar matings are made, a cock being used with 
pullets and a cockerel with hens. In this year also the male and female 
lines are brought together by mating a cockerel from the male line "Dl" 
with a pullet from the female line "E2." The result of this mating is 
one-half the blood of "A" and one-half the blood of "B," exactly the 
same proportion that we had from the original mating. Again in the 
fifth year the two lines can be brought together with the same result. 
When a cockerel is mated with a pullet, both are supposed to be of 
pronounced vigor and prepotency, early hatched, and widely separated 
in blood lines. It will be noted that in all the other matings shown in 
the chart, brother and sister are not mated together and a cock is 
always mated with a pullet and a cockerel with a hen. 

By following this system there is not at any time any very close 
relationships in the matings. Vigor can be maintained and by selecting 
only the best each year good qualities can be preserved and intensified. 

Many other combinations besides those named can be used. If the 
original male has unusual vitality and is a prepotent breeder he can be 
used for three successive years and this will intensify his blood in the 
male line. So also can the females be used for three years intensifying 
the blood of the original dam in the female line. Probably for all 
practical purposes the farmer will not wish to use his males and females 
longer than for two seasons. 



[105] 




Dinner time in the poultry 



[106] 



Chapter IX 

Mating and Culling 



THE following are important steps in breeding: 
The Ideal. The first step in breeding is determining the 
ideal. This is formed by a study of the breed as exemplified 
in living birds or by a careful study of distinguishing char- 
acters as set forth in the Standard of Perfection. The ideal 
is necessary to progress. Otherwise all efforts to produce or 
improve a breed will be aimless. Chance will be the control- 
ling factor. When the mind has a perfect picture of the type 
and color of the variety chosen, the breeder is then ready to 
select his foundation stock with discrimination. 

Selecting the Foundation Stock 

Success or failure will depend on this step. Here are some 
of the general principles concerned in the selection of breeding 
stock : 

1. Sire and dam should not be related closely if it can be avoided. 

2. Reject all specimens from the breeding pen that have ever been 
sick or that have any constitutional weakness. 

3. Insist that every specimen shall approach the ideal, as near as 
possible, in type, color, and stamina. 

4. Avoid all disqualifications in either sex. The more important 
general disqualifications are the following: Side sprigs on single combs; 
absence of spike on rose combs; feathers on shanks or toes of clean- 
legged varieties; absence of feathers on toes or shanks where they 
should occur; deformed beaks, wry tails, crooked backs, crooked keels, 
squirrel tail; color of feet other than required by the standard; color 
of face and ear lobes white, when the standard requirement is red, and 
vice versa. 

4. Avoid birds too large or too small for the breed. In most cases 
the standard weight will give best results. 

How to Select the Male 

In selecting the head of the flock or pen, the following 
factors should be considered : Vigor, vitality, prepotency, pro- 
ductive power. 

Vigor. Physical stamina and energy of action are the 
proof of vigor. If I were asked to select a male of strong 

[107] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

constitutional vigor, I would insist on the following: Legs 
well set apart ; shanks strong and not too long, back broad at 
shoulders, breast full, body deep and wide and the span be- 
tween the lower point of keel and ends of pubic bones at least 




A knock-kneed rooster, showing low vigor 

and vitality. Do not select males like this 

for breeding. 



three fingers, eye full and bright, head wide between eyes, 
and a bird that has a good appetite and is pugnacious and 
courageous. 

Vitality. There is a difference between vitality and vigor. 
Vitality is the grip on life. It is that invisible something that 

[108] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

inheres in the individual. A fowl may be strong and vigorous 
but lack in vitality because it lacks resistance to unfavorable 
influences. When a bird has good vitality it resists disease 
and survives while others quickly succumb. A male bird that 
survives two or three seasons in the breeding pen certainly 
has good vitality. 

Prepotency. This is the power that an individual has to 
perpetuate its qualities. Vigor, vitality and prepotency often 
go together, but a bird may have the first two qualities but 
lack in prepotency. When a male stamps his individuality 
upon his progeny he is said to be prepotent. Such a male is 
invaluable. Prepotency is indicated by the jealous attention 
of the male to the female. Strongly fertile eggs are an evi- 
dence of prepotency in the breeding stock. 

A sure method of detecting prepotency is the trap nest. 
Walter Hogan in his "Call of the Hen" gives a method which 
is worth considering. A point, known as "A", is found where 
the skull joins the atlas along the median line over top of head ; 
and a similar point, known as "B", is found on the side just 
behind the ear where the skull joins the neck. If A is behind 
B, prepotency is strong; if A and B are opposite or in the same 
plane prepotency is only average; but if B is behind A pre- 
potency is weak. Some consider prepotency a "breeders' 
superstition" and that the Hogan test is only a "myth." By 
many breeders this test is considered reliable and that it 
should always be used in selecting special matings. It is 
worth a trial. 

An individual may be prepotent in one character but not in 
others. Again, an individual may be prepotent in several char- 
acters, such as type, fecundity, vitality and color. When a 
male is found to be prepotent he should be greatly treasured 
on account of his influence upon the whole flock. 

Producing power. It is quite generally recognized that 
high egg production does not always come from females whose 
dams were good producers. The male is an important factor 
in securing large egg production. If the male is derived from 
a hen having a high record for egg production, his progeny will 
be good producers. The trap nest is necessary to select the 
high producing hens. In addition to his breeding the male 
should pass the culling tests usually applied to the female. 
The pubic bones should be straight, not unduly thickened at 
the ends, and should be separated by at least one finger. The 

[109] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

capacity measure should be at least three fingers, this being 
determined by the span between the lower point of keel and 
the ends of the pubic bones. The tail should be well de- 
veloped and the comb, wattles and earlobes should be fine in 
texture. 

How to Select the Female 

The qualifications of the female are practically the same as 
with the male. The head points, however, are finer and the 
cranium is narrower. Special emphasis should be given to 
type and size. A hen with a baggy abdomen should not be 
used as a breeder. A hen that produces abnormal eggs 
should be removed from the breeding pen. A hen with any 
bad habit, such as egg-eating, feather pulling or laziness 
should be cured or rejected. 

Selecting and Mating by the Trap Nest 

There is no surer method of determining laying capacity 
than by the trap nest. While this method is not practical on 
many farms yet the farmer can profit by the discoveries made 
through this means in the experiment stations and egg-laying 
contests. The valuable data collected by investigators through 
trap-nest records have given a great impetus to the study of 
poultry problems. Two investigators, widely separated in 
space but widely known in poultry circles, are Professor James 
Dryden of the Oregon University Experiment Station and Dr. 
Raymond Pearl of the Maine University Experiment Station. 
Their deductions from trap-nest experiments have thrown a 
world of light upon the problems of fecundity and heredity. 
We take pleasure in quoting from these authorities, believing 
that the facts which they present should have wide circulation. 

Professor Dryden's Conclusions 

"Regardless of any question of prepotency, the selection of 
breeding stock on the basis of production record is a certain 
method of increasing production. 

"Some individuals have greater power of transmitting 
high fecundity than others of the same breeding. 

"Good layers are not always produced by good layers, nor 
are poor layers always produced by poor layers. 

"Rapid progress can be made by the breeder if he tests the 
breeding quality of his stock by using for breeding those hens 
and males whose progeny has shown high production. 

rnoi 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

"Rate of laying is within certain limits and accurate meas- 
ure of egg-laying capacity. 

"Good laying capacity is indicated by heavy production in 
any two months of the year. 

"Late laying in the fall does not always indicate good 
layers." 

Dr. Pearl's Conclusions 

• "One of the least understood phenomena in genetics is 
prepotency. It is customary to regard an animal as prepotent 
in breeding for performance when the progeny of that indi- 
vidual uniformly tend to resemble it closely in respect to 
the character bred for, regardless of the other parent in each 
mating. 

"High fecundity is not inherited by the daughters from 
their dam. 

"High fecundity may be inherited by the daughters from 
their sire independent of the dam. 

"A low degree of fecundity may be inherited by the daugh- 
ters from either sire or dam or both. 

"Winter egg production is the best available measure of 
innate capacity in respect to fecundity. 

"Variations in fecundity are not determined by the number 
of visible oocytes on the ovary. This number varies by actual 
count from 900 to 3,600. 

"Breeding for high fecundity requires the use of such 
females only as have shown themselves to be high producers, 
since it is only from such females that there can be any hope 
of getting males capable of transmitting high laying qualities ; 
and the use as breeders of such males only as are known to be 
sons of high producing dams, since only from such males can 
we expect to get high producing daughters." 

Conditioning the Breeders 

Selecting foundation stock is important, but to stop at this 
point is to court disappointment. The stock must be con- 
ditioned for best results just as a piece of machinery must be 
kept oiled and in trim condition to give good service. That 
breeding stock should receive different treatment from stock 
that is being forced for egg production is generally admitted. 
Condiments, high stimulants, and hot mashes should be 

run 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 




Mr. Osburn determining the thickness of the pubic-bones 

avoided. A balanced ration, pure water, plenty of exercise, 
abundance of sunshine and oxygen and extreme cleanliness are 
all indicated. 

Culling the Flock 

Culling is the final step in poultry breeding. In nearly 
every farm flock there are three classes of undesirables — the 
weaklings, the defectives and the non-producers. The object 
of culling is to weed out the weaklings, to swat the slackers, 
and to discard the defectives. When the work of culling is 
completed and all the culls have been conditioned and shipped 

[112] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

to market, there should remain but two classes, the breeding 
flock and the laying flock. Many fowls that would not pass 
muster as breeders can be vised in the laying flock. 

Culling should be made at least four times in a year — 
March, June, September and December. In December 
breeding pens are made up. The defectives are put with the 
laying flock, and those that meet standard requirements are 
saved for the breeding pen. At this culling some weaklings 
will be found that should not be saved for egg-production. 
These can be conditioned for market along with any surplus 
cockerels that are not suited to be sold as breeders. In March, 
all the hens that will prove unprofitable producers can be 
detected, for at this season every hen that is worth saving will 
lay. 

In June, another culling of the layers will weed out a few 
that have passed the productive age and some poor producers 
that were overlooked in earlier cullings. Early hatched 
cockerels can also be culled at this time, some to be caponized, 
others to be marketed as broilers. 

In September a thorough culling should be made. It is 
possible then to detect the early molters, and the condition of 
plumage and pigmentation makes it quite easy to pick out the 
good layers. At this time, also, the young stock can be 
selected for the fattening crate and the laying and breeding 
pens. 

As an aid to memory in making culling demonstrations I 
have used the word "T-e-a-c-h", each letter in this word 
representing an important step in the work: Type, Energy, 
Anatomy, Condition, Habit. 

Type is conformity to an ideal in shape. In culling non- 
layers, type is a very important item. We have discussed the 
different types — meat type, dual purpose type, and egg type. 
What do Ave mean by an egg type? Evidently that confor- 
mation of body and bodily structures which is conducive to 
highest egg-production. Is there an egg type and, if so, what 
is it? Breeders are not agreed upon any single type of fowl 
as better adapted to egg-production than all others. Some 
prefer the wedge-shaped. Such a fowl is full in the abdomen 
but the body gradually tapers toward the neck. If the hen is 
viewed from above or the side or the rear it presents the form 
of a wedge. The wedge-shape appeals to them because it 
indicates large abdominal capacity. 

[113] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 




Capacity is shown by the space between the keel and pubic-bones 



The slab-sided type is advocated by some. The body pre- 
sents the appearance of a flat side-surface which is deep and 
long. Such hens are usually narrow in body, but they are 
counted as good layers. Another egg-type advocated by 
some is the spherical body. Viewed in any direction the 
outline of the body is round. The Wyandotte is a good 
illustration. Some Wyandotte breeders have had courage to 
break away from standard requirements and are now breeding 
for a longer body with a full breast, believing that type to 

[114] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

mean larger capacity and greater egg-production. Still 
another type that has a large number of advocates is the 
oblong type. The body is long and wide across the back, and 
of good depth. The breast is full, the keel long, and the abdo- 
men full. Viewed from above or on the side the shape is 
oblong. This type is illustrated in the White Leghorn and the 
Rhode Island Red, as well as many other breeds. This type 
probably has more friends than any other. 

Type is also indicated by the thickness and conformation 
of the public bones. If they are one-eighth of an inch or less 
in thickness, the egg-type is indicated. If they are moderately 
thick, one-fourth of an inch or a little more or less, the dual 
purpose type is indicated. If they are very thick, one-half inch 
or more, the meat type is suggested, and such hens tend to lay 
on fat rather than produce eggs. In making a study of the 
dual purpose breeds it will be found that moderately thick 
pubic bones are compatible with good egg-production. 

Egg type is also indicated by the head points. A bright 
eye, a short beak, a large comb, fine in texture, large wattles, 
and a face with a close fitting skin are indicative of the egg 
type. If a hen falls short in these requirements she may be 
suspected of being unworthy of a place in the flock. 

Energy. Energy is the power to do work. This power 
depends upon health, vitality, prepotency, capacity, and 
temperament. 

Health is a condition in which the functions of the body 
are performed without friction; disease is an abnormal con- 
dition. Only healthy fowls should be allowed to remain in the 
flock. If diseased, they will soon cease laying, and, if they lay, 
their eggs will be unfit for human consumption. 

Vitality is essential to production. If weak in vitality the 
hen should be rejected. Sometimes, however, a hen may 
naturally have a good grip on life, but its vitality has been 
weakened by external or internal parasites. If the parasites 
are destroyed, she will put on new life and become productive. 

The value of prepotency has been discussed. Hens that 
lack in prepotency should be culled from the breeding flock, 
but may be retained in the laying flock. 

Capacity is an index of energy. By capacity is meant an 
abundance of room for the operation of all the machinery 
engaged in egg-production. A machine in cramped quarters 
will turn out only a limited amount of finished product because 

[115] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

it cannot handle the raw material in abundance. If the di- 
gestive and reproductive organs which constitute the egg 
factory are in a cramped abdominal cavity they cannot be 
expected to yield a large output in eggs. Capacity is usually 
determined by the span between the ends of the pubic bones 
and the lower point of the keel. This measurement should be 
three fingers or more. If the measurement is four or five 
fingers, capacity is large and the hen is probably a good pro- 
ducer. If less than three fingers there is reason to doubt the 
quality of the hen. 

This caution should be given. There are times when a 
good producer will be found more or less contracted in the 
abdominal region. This may happen at the close of a long 
siege of sitting or during the period of the molt. This must 
be taken into account in culling for this defect. Again, 
capacity may sometimes be abnormally large, as with a hen 
excessively fat or with a drooping abdomen. A baggy abdo- 
men, which hangs below the keel, indicates a breaking down 
of the egg organs, and such a hen should be marketed at an 
early date. 

Temperament has something to do with the energy of a 
fowl. Temperaments are described as nervous, sanguine, 
lymphatic and bilious. A nervous temperament means 
greater energy and more work accomplished than could be 
possible with a bilious temperament. The Buff Cochin has 
a bilious temperament and produces few eggs ; a Plymouth 
Rock has a sanguine temperament and is a good average layer. 
A White Leghorn has a nervous temperament and excels in 
egg-production. Many individuals of the dual purpose breeds 
are nervous in temperament and excel in production. This is 
illustrated in the White Rock hen, Lady Show-you, the 
champion in the first Mountain Grove, Mo. contest. She was 
nervous, exceedingly active and energetic, always searching 
for food. Temperament is a good guide in selecting the good 
producers of a flock. 

Anatomy. This term applies to structural characters. The 
most important structural characters which have a bearing on 
egg-production are the pubic bones. In a good layer these are 
thin, straight and well spread apart. The spread is generally 
measured by the tips of the fingers. A finger measures about 
one-half inch to three-fourths of an inch. When a hen is in 
laying condition the distance between the pubic bones is 

[116] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

three fingers to five fingers in a good layer. When the 
measurement is only two fingers or less the test is considered 
unfavorable. Nearly all hens during the molt, or while sitting, 
will have a much smaller spread than while laying, and this 
must be considered in culling. Watch for abnormalities. There 
are certain anatomical defects which should always be sought 
in culling demonstrations and, if found, the hen should be 
rejected. An important one is crooked pubic bones. If these 
are much curved so as to approach each other at their points 
and are tied together with rigid skin and muscle, the hen is a 
poor producer. Such a condition interferes with the process of 
laying, so that it is attended with more or less pain. Hens 
with this defect lay fewer eggs. Undoubtedly crooked pubic 
bones are the cause of blood-stained eggs. Such hens should 
not be used as breeders, and they are unprofitable layers. 

Another defect is the crooked breast bone. This defect is 
hereditary, and birds affected should be discarded. A de- 
formed beak and a crooked back are other defects that count 
against the laying performance of a hen. 

Occasionally hens are poor layers on account of structural 
defects in the egg organs. Usually these cannot be detected 
during the life of the hen, but sometimes the shape of the egg, 
the texture of the shell, or the condition of the contents are 
tell-tales which indicate that the hen should be removed, at 
least, from the breeding pen. 

Condition. A very good indication of the laying per- 
formance of a hen is her condition at different seasons. In this 
connection we should consider the condition of plumage, skin, 
flesh and pigment. In September, after a long period of laying, 
the plumage is worn and faded. This indicates a good layer. 
The skin of a good layer upon the abdomen is found to be soft, 
velvety, and pliable. A good layer, if fed properly, carries a 
good supply of flesh. This is noted by the condition of the 
keel, which is well covered. A poor layer is abnormally fat or 
unusually thin, with little flesh on keel. At certain seasons 
pigmentation is a very good clue by which to detect the poor 
layers. In yellow skinned breeds the vent will continue yellow 
in the non-layers, but becomes pale or pinkish-white among 
the good layers. The color disappears from the beak, skin, 
eye, and legs of the good layer, but a poor layer will retain the 
yellow beak and skin and brilliant plumage. 

[117] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Habit. This is the final test of productiveness. Habit is 
the method of life. Three habits may be mentioned as bearing 
on egg-production, viz., molting, feeding and exercising. 

Molting, or shedding of feathers, is a common habit of 
poultry, but the time of molting is not fixed. Late molters 
and quick molters are invariably good layers. The reason 
assigned is that late molting lengthens out the laying season, 
while quick molting shortens the resting period. Molting and 
egg-production are not compatible. When a hen begins to 
molt she slackens in egg-production. 

The hen that retains her pigmentation and molts in early 
summer is counted as a poor layer and should be culled from 
the flock. In culling on the basis of an early molt, this caution 
should be observed, that good layers are sometimes thrown 
into an early molt because of environment or a sudden change 
in feed. Before such hens are thrown out they should be 
tested along other lines for further proof of unproductiveness. 

The habit of sitting is very trying among some breeds. The 
persistent sitter, the one that, when broken, lays only a small 
clutch of eggs before becoming broody again, is usually an 
unprofitable layer. 

The habit of feeding varies with different hens. The poor 
layer is indifferent. She has no occasion to hustle for food as 
she is not a producer, and for this reason she is early to roost 
and late in leaving the roost. 

The habit of exercise characterizes the good layer. She is 
a good scratcher, and scratching makes short claws. She is 
a hustler and works till sundown and is up before sunrise. 

Score Card for Culling Demonstrations 

{Body type 5 
Thickness of Pubic Bones 10 
Head Points 5 

[" Vitality and vigor 5 

2. Energy 20 J Prepotency and Temperament 5 

| Capacity 10 

f Spread of Pubic Bones 10 

3. Anatomy 20 -l Shape of Pubic Bones 5 

| Structural Defects 5 

Plumage 5 

Pigmentation 5 

Skin 5 

Flesh 5 

Molting 10 

Feeding 5 

Exercise 5 



118 



4. Condition 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 




Trap nests makes it possible to keep a laying record of each bird 

No bird should be retained in the flock that scores less 
than 75 points. Example : A hen that should be laying in 
July is found to have pubic bones one-half inch thick — deduct 
10 points; the capacity measurement is only two fingers — 
deduct 10 points ; the keel is crooked — deduct five points ; the 
pigmentation is yellow in beak, skin and legs — deduct five 
points; the hen is in full molt and there is no evidence that she 
has been laying — deduct 10 points. The total deductions 
amount to 40 points. Her score therefore is 60 points. Ordi- 
narily a hen with as many cuts as here given would be found 
defective in several other tests. In this particular case we 
assume that the other points are good. A hen should not be 
rejected on one or two cuts unless they are very decidedly 
unfavorable. The practice of throwing out hens simply be- 
cause the pubic spread is small may lead to serious error. The 
bird should be tested in all points and the decision made 
according to the preponderance of evidence. 

Mating the Farm Flock 

On the average farm there is little or no effort made 
towards line breeding. There are not even separate pens in 
which to keep the breeders apart from the laying stock. The' 

[1191 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

stock is given free range, summer and winter. Some little 
effort is made toward mating the flock by culling out every- 
thing that should go to market and by purchasing new 
cockerels, so as to maintain the vigor of the flock. A few 
words along the line of mating the general flock may be helpful. 
It would be far better if a few breeding pens could be made so 




A self-feeder for mash, charcoal and oyster shell 



as to keep the breeding stock separate from the layers. Then 
the laying stock could be forced for winter eggs, while the 
breeders could be given the care and feeding required to 
produce fertile eggs that would hatch sturdy chicks. Where 
this cannot be done, the following course is advised : 

1. Cull out all the undesirable females. 

2. Remove from the flock all late hatched cockerels. If brothers and 
sisters are to be mated they should be of outstanding quality and of 
pronounced vigor and stamina. 

3. Keep the yearling cock birds, if they have proven of good breed- 
ing quality. 

[120] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

4. If a pure-bred flock, select males strong in color and females 
strong in shape and size. 

5. Mate so that the defects in one sex will be counteracted by strong 
points in the opposite sex. 

6. Avoid all disqualifications in either sex. 

7. Select males and females that qualify under the tests for the type 
desired, whether meat, dual purpose, or egg type. 

8. Use great care in introducing new blood. It means the introduc- 
tion of new characters which may not harmonize with your own strain; 
further, it may mean the introduction of some weakness or latent disease 
that will bring disaster. 

9. Avoid females that produce abnormal eggs, such as undersized, 
oversized, elongated, round, rough-shelled, or uneven eggs. 

How to Mark the Breeders 

It will be found helpful to mark all the breeding stock. 
Where there is a general flock, the pullets and cockerels can be 
leg-banded each fall, a different color being used each year. 
The celluloid rings are good for this purpose. If this is done, 
there will be no difficulty in distinguishing pullets from hens. 
Where line breeding or pen breeding is pursued, numbered 
leg bands or wing markers should be used. The birds of each 
pen can be given bands with a separate color, and different 
colors can be used for each year, if necessary, to distinguish 
pullets from one-year-old or two-year-old hens. 



[121] 



Chapter X 

The Poultry House 



A SUCCESSFUL poultry house combines the following 
characteristics : 

1. It is dry. This is secured by having a concrete floor 
laid upon cinders, broken stone, or coarse gravel, and elevated 
about one foot above the surrounding ground. The roof and 
walls are water proof and a good circulation prevents the con- 
densation of moisture from the fowls upon any portion of the 
room. 

2. It is well ventilated. This is accomplished by windows, 
shutters, screens, or ventilators placed on one side of the 
building so as to prevent drafts. The top, two ends and rear 
side of a poultry house should always be air tight. The 
ventilation, therefore, should be secured from the front. The 
shutter method is probably the best as it prevents the entrance 
of rain and snow and can be kept open in all seasons. A 
frame covered with fine wire netting will be found very satis- 
factory. It has the advantage of admitting light as well as 
pure air. The glass windows should be adjusted so that they 
can be opened when weather conditions require. 

By this system ventilation is accomplished by diffusion. 
There is a constant interchange between the warm air within 
and the pure air on the outside. Such a poultry house will 
never be stuffy or ill-smelling. Other methods of ventilation 
are by means of ventilators placed in the roof, by canvas- 
covered doors, and by an open front. Ventilators in the roof 
often serve a good purpose ; the pores of canvas soon become 
filled with dust so as to prevent the fresh air from sifting into 
the house, and canvas shuts out the light; the open front is 
very popular and will be satisfactory if provision is made to 
protect against driving storms. 

3. It is well lighted. Windows should extend from upper 
to lower plate so as to admit the sunlight to all portions of the 
floor. Sunshine is a germicide, as well as oxygen, and it is not 
possible to have the supply too abundant. Windows should be 

F122] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 





[ I I.I 


1 


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EXIT 




1 1 II 


l 


i 




1 I 1 .' I 


1 


1 


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| J ROOSTS II | ROOSTS 


1 


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DROP BOARD 


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FLOOR PLAN 

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Scratch Room. 

S'X 20' 

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OPEN FRONT 



20 



Floor plan of ideal farm poultry house for 100 laying hens. See elevation plan on 
next page.. This house can be built for $150 to $200 



covered on the inside with half-inch wire netting to prevent 
the breaking of lights by unruly fowls. 

4. It is comfortable, warm in winter and cool in summer. 
If the shed roof type of house is used, the slope of the roof 
will be toward the north and hence will be protected from the 
direct rays of the sun. Such a house will be much cooler in 
summer than where the roof has a large exposure to the south. 

Such a house will also be comfortable in winter, as it will 
get the benefit of the sun's rays. If necessary, canvas curtains 
should be provided on rollers to be pulled down as a protection 
in severely cold weather. Houses should never be heated 
artificially in winter as the fowls will thrive better with _ a 
reasonable amount of cold. 

[123] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 




"« ■ 20 J " 

End elevation of ideal farm poultry house. See cut of complete house on next page 

5. It is roomy. The floor space is adequate for the number 
of fowls. Four square feet should be allowed for each hen. A 
house 20x20 feet will accommodate 100 hens. A house 20x40 
feet will accommodate 200 hens. Overcrowding does not favor 
egg-production. It is better to provide too much room than 
too little. Sometimes a flock of ten hens in roomy quarters 
will produce more eggs than a hundred in crowded conditions, 
even though given like care otherwise. 

6. It is convenient. The nests, the feeding platform, the 
water fount, and other devices are all so arranged as to save 
labor for the attendant. The house will be accessible so as to 
save labor in providing water, feed, and litter. 

7. It is vermin proof. The floor is of concrete to prevent 
the entrance of rats, mink and other vermin. All nesting and 
roosting places for sparrows are closed, and all hiding and 
breeding places for mites and lice are avoided as far as 
possible. Nests and roosts are removable so that they can be 
taken outside and thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. 

8. It is inexpensive. A hollow tile wall would be ideal, 
but ordinary tongue and groove siding will answer all 
purposes. Paper roofing will serve many years if shingles 
are too expensive. If it leaks from any cause, it should be 
quickly repaired as a protection to the flock and to the building. 



[124] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 
Location 

The selection of a site for the poultry house is of prime 
importance. This should be on the highest, best drained 
ground, not too far from the farm residence. Such a location 
may be exposed to driving winds and rain and snow, but it is 
easier to build windbreaks than to drain low ground. A sandy 
loam or porous soil with gravel subsoil is the most desirable 
for poultry, for it eliminates stagnant pools of water which 
generally prove a menace to the flock. A clay soil is to be 
shunned, if possible. 

If a suitable soil cannot be obtained, a few loads of gravel 
or cinders around the building will help matters. A site 
adjacent to the orchard is ideal, for it furnishes a place of 
forage for the flock, the trees furnish shade in the heat of 
summer, and fowls contribute their help by destroying harmful 
insects. If the ground slopes in all directions from the house, 
good drainage is insured. If the building is on a side hill, some 
provision must be made for drainage on the high side or else 
the floor of the house should be raised so as to be above the 
surrounding ground. 




This is the way the farm poultry house built from plan 
completed 

[1251 



preceding pages looks when 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 



i 

Hi 




.1; 


^§ 




Hfc^ 




-— » - 








j 



The semi-gable type of poultry house 



Types of Poultry Houses 

What type of a house is most suitable to the farm? The 
shed roof has many friends. The advantages of this type are 
several: It furnishes a large frontage by which sunlight can 
be admitted to all parts of the building; it is more easily con- 
structed and is less expensive than other types ; as the roof has 
a northern slope it will be more lasting than other roofs be- 
cause protected from the direct rays of the sun. The shed roof 
has the disadvantage that it is easily torn away and destroyed 
by heavy winds. When the wind strikes a sloping roof, its 
force is resolved into two forces, one parallel to its surface 
which has no effect, and the other perpendicular to its surface 
which exerts a downward pressure and tends to hold the build- 
ing in place. But when a high wind strikes the front side of 
a shed-roof type of building there is no downward pressure 
and, unless the building- is carefully anchored, it will be torn 
away by the wind. I have known shed-roof buildings to be 
torn to pieces and scattered on a distant field while other 
buildings with roof pitching toward the wind have been un- 
moved. 

[1261 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

The next most popular and serviceable type of poultry 
house is the semi-monitor. This is illustrated on page 125. 
This is a more expensive type to build as it has a broken roof. 
The upper windows allow the sunshine to reach the back 
portion of the building. The front portion can be used for a 
scratch room and, if an open front is desired, ventilation can be 
secured in that way. Such a building should be made deep, 
16 ft. to 20 ft. The deeper the building, the more favorable to 
the flock and the better the results. 

A third type is the semi-gable. This is in common use and 
has advantages over the two mentioned above. 

How to Build the Poultry House 

The following simple directions may assist in building a 
semi-monitor house 20 feet square. The trenches should be 
dug at least 18 inches deep as a protection against frost 
and vermin. The dirt is thrown to the outside to be afterwards 
graded against the foundation. The forms for the foundation 
should be made of twelve inch or two six inch boards. After 
the forms are placed the trench is filled with the concrete made 
of four parts gravel and one part cement. 

As the cement is being placed strong bolts with heavy 
washers are set so that the top of each bolt will extend about 
an inch above the top of the foundation plate. These are to 
anchor the building. The concrete is brought flush with the 
tops of forms and made level and smooth. As the foundation 
is made six inches wide a 2" x 6" timber can be used for plates. 
These are now bolted to the foundation. The floor space is 
now filled with cinders, broken stone or coarse gravel to a 
depth of six inches. As these substances are porous and con- 
tain air spaces they prevent moisture coming up from below, 
thus insuring a dry floor at all times. We are now ready for 
the concrete. A layer two inches thick of the same quality as 
used in the foundation is placed upon the broken stone. and 
made level to receive the top dressing. After the concrete has 
begun to set the top coat is applied consisting of two parts of 
coarse, gritty sand, and one part cement. This should be 
made one inch thick and should be troweled level. After the 
top coat has begun to set a skim coat of pure cement and water 
is applied. This is to be very thin and should be troweled 
until a smooth hard surface is formed. 

■ [127] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 




A convenient poultry interior. The roosts swing up so that the droppings board can be 

easily cleaned. A better position for the nests would be on the side wall as this would save 

floor space, needed by the hens 

Unless the walls are to be built of hollow tile, the posts can 
be made of 2x4 inch stuff. If the building is to be 20 feet deep 
the posts in front should be 4 feet 6 inches high and in 
the rear 5 feet. If it is to be 16 feet deep they should be 
4 feet long in front and 4 feet in the rear. In the building 
20 feet square the rafters for the front pitch can be made 
of 2x4 inch stuff 9 feet long. This allows for a 1 foot pro- 
jection at the eaves; and for the rear pitch the rafters should 
be 2x4 inch stuff, 14 feet 8 inches long. The roof supporters, 
three in number, should be 4x4 inch posts placed 8 feet from 
the front. 

The siding should be tongue and groove 1 inch material 
free from knot holes. The sheeting should be matched floor- 
ing if a paper roofing is to be used. In the front elevation 
above front roof there should be five windows as shown on 
page 125. At least one of these should be hinged to allow 
of opening for ventilation. The open front should be provided 
with frames covered with wire screen. The door to the 
building should be on the east side. West doors should be 
avoided as prevailing winds are from the west. Exits and 
entrances for the fowls may be placed under the ventilators 

[1281 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

and at one corner in the rear. The perches should be made of 
2x3 inch stuff 9 feet long, rounded on the edges. They can be 
supported by Y> inch iron rods which pass through holes bored 
in each perch. These rods are fastened to the rear wall by 
means of large screw eyes which are hooked into a ring formed 
at the end of each rod. This forms a hinge so that the perches 
can be raised and lowered at will. Two supporting rods and 
five perches in each section would be sufficient for 100 fowls. 
The perches should be one foot apart and arranged so as to be 
level. They should be placed^ about eight inches above the 
droppings board. The droppings board is made of half inch 
matched lumber in sections so as to be easily removed. They 
can rest upon 2x4 inch timbers, one nailed to the rear wall and 
the other supported by legs in front. The platform should 
extend in front of perches about twelve inches to provide an 
alighting place for the fowls. These droppings boards should 
be thirty inches from the floor. Nests can be built on the side 
walls or on an elevated platform between the roosting room 
and the scratch room. They should not be built on the floor, 
for then soft shelled eggs and cracked eggs will be eaten by 





Osburn's poultry house 



[129] 



PRAIRIE 


FARMER 


S 


POULTRY 


BOOK 












*.%&m*m, 




An inexpensive colony house 



the fowls, thus leading to the egg-eating habit and, by this 
method, floor space is used that is needed by the hens. Plat- 
forms should be provided for the self feeders and watering 
vessels. All covers for nests, self feeders and hoppers should 
be inclined or they will become roosting places for the fowls. 
A bin for holding dry mash can be placed under the ventilators 
or in one corner of the scratch room. It should be mouse proof, 
so should be lined with tin and have a tight fitting cover. It 
is customary with long houses to have a room at one end for 
the storage of feeds and other supplies. 

In the plan proposed for this house, the top of plate is five 
inches above the cement floor. This gives room on the floor 
for a deep litter that will not interfere with the opening of 
doors. If the house is built in more than one section, a par- 
tition of half-inch material should be built between the sec- 
tions. The door between the sections should be light, of half- 
inch material, and hung on swinging spring hinges. The front 

[130] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

portion of the floor space is used as a scratch room, where the 
grain mixture is fed. The rear portion can also be used for 
that purpose if necessary. 

Some poultry keepers advise a dust box to be partly filled 
with soil, sifted ashes, road dust, dustyne or other material. 
It can be placed under the drop boards, and surely the hens 
appreciate it. The good points of a house such as described 
are ventilation without a draft, an abundance of sunlight reach- 
ing all parts of the building, a dry floor, it is roomy and com- 
fortable, and rats and sparrows cannot infest it. 

Lots 

It is a great help to have one or more lots connected with 
every section of the poultry house. If winter eggs are to be 
forthcoming, the flock should not be allowed to roam over the 
farm, but they should have access to the outdoor air at least 
a portion of nearly every day. This cannot be accomplished 
without chicken tight lots. If there is a lot in front and one in 
the rear the ground can be cultivated, and while the hens are 
using one lot, a crop of rape, oats or other green feed can be 
grown in the other. In this way the soil is kept sweet and 
disease is warded off. If only one lot can be provided it should 
be disinfected frequently by sprinkling the ground with a solu- 
tion of copperas, one pound to 50 gallons of water. Slaked 
lime is also good for disinfection if scattered over the ground. 
Another good method is to spade the soil. This gives oxygen 




Mr. Osburn uses this convenient nestbox arrangement 

[131] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S PO ULTRY BOOK 




Raising baby chicks is easy with a brooder house like this 



to penetrate, and they are the great 



and sunshine a chance 
germ killers. 

Other Buildings 

Besides the breeding and laying house, other buildings will 
be found necessary, especially if large production is expected. 

Incubator House. Under average farm conditions the in- 
cubator can be set in the house in some room where an even 
temperature can be maintained. The cellar, also, makes a 
good location. If chicks are to be produced on a large scale 
an incubator house will be needed. It can be built of stone 
with thick walls or of hollow tile and at least half of the room 
should be below the ground level. If an upper story is made 
it can be used for storage of feeds and supplies. Provision 
must be made for drainage and ventilation. The incubator 
should not be near a stove, or in a draft, or subject to direct 
sunshine. If the incubators are to be run in cold weather pro- 
vision must be made to keep the room temperature at about 
60 degrees. 

[1321 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Brooder House. This is built after the same general plan 
as the laying house, the difference being in size. A long brooder 
house without partitions would not be successful on account 
of drafts which are always found in such a building. It would 
be better to have several smaller houses. A room or house, 
8x12 feet, would accommodate 100 to 200 chicks, and we doubt 




A dropping board makes it easy to keep the house clean 

whether more than that number should be crowded under one 
hover. A concrete floor is necessary to keep out vermin, and 
ventilation without draft can be secured by muslin windows, 

Platforms for water, mash, grit, etc., if made accessible to 
the chicks, will be a great help toward keeping these supplies 
clean. 

About two inches of coarse sand on the concrete floor will 
prevent rheumatism and leg weakness. 

[133] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 



*• 




A handy brood coop for hen and chicks 



Colony houses. Small colony houses for the growing stock 
are of great value. A house 3x6 feet, with a shed roof, will 
accommodate thirty to forty chicks. The floor should be tight 
and all openings covered with wire screen to keep out vermin. 
Two large doors in front may be provided, one of glass for 
light and the other covered with wire netting and muslin for 
ventilation and protection. Such a house should face the east 
as a protection against prevailing winds and should be elevated 
upon runners, stilts or stone piers as a protection against ver- 
min. The runway into the house should be closed on the sides 
to assist the chicks in finding their way inside. 

Brood coops. Galvanized iron coops are considered sani- 
tary but are intolerable under a hot sun. Shed roof coops, 
made at home, answer well. They should have a floor bottom 
and a runway in front. A sliding door will protect against 
enemies at night. If closed at night holes in the side for ven- 
tilation should be provided. 

The hen hatchery. Where chicks are to be hatched by 
hens some provision must be made for the sitting hens. A 
small house with compartments or a room set apart for that 
purpose is all that is necessary. 

[1341 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

The feed room. One of the most difficult problems on 
the farm is to provide a room for grains and mill products 
required for feeding poultry and other farm animals that is 
absolutely rat- and mouse-proof. These vermin contaminate 
the food and bring disease and must be outwitted. The floors 
of bins should be covered with tin or iron unless there is a 
concrete floor and all windows and openings covered with 
wire netting. Mashes left in sacks become a harbor for vermin. 
It would be better to mix the mashes as soon as the materials 
are obtained and put them in vermin proof bins. Many farms 
are provided with machinery to grind grains so that cracked 
corn, corn meal, ground oats, etc. can be produced on the 
farm. Wheat can be taken to the local mill and bran, middlings, 
etc. obtained in that way. 

Other buildings may be required, all depending upon how 
extended are the operations of the producer. Conditioning 
rooms or houses, storage places, and a detention house are of 
this character. 

Cautions 

Do not build the poultry house on low ground. Dampness 
breeds disease and disease spells loss. 

Do not face the poultry house toward the north or the west. 
Prevailing storms are from those directions. 

Do not put doors or windows on the west side of the poultry 
house. 




Another convenient brood coop 



[135] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Do not put nests under drop-boards upon the floor. It 
means vermin, egg-eating hens, and loss of floor space. 

Do not close the front of building with glass. It means a 
damp building. 

Do not set watering and feeding vessels on the floor, but 
on elevated platforms. 

Do not allow leaks in the roof. 

Do not permit cracks, knot holes or other openings on the 
north, east, or west. 

Major Equipment 

The major equipment comprises incubators, brooders, self- 
feeders, grain spouters, egg cabinets, trap nests and all other 
supplies of a durable nature. Most of this equipment can be 
purchased of supply houses at less expense than if made by 
the poultry keeper. Some, however, such as nests, self-feeders, 
and outdoor brooders (fireless) can be made at home with con- 
siderable saving of expense. Illustrations are given showing 
how some of these are made. 




< 30 

Jr/7f/rc fao ear 6e ///?<?</ <?/? Jaf/<?/77. 



< eo > 



136 



Chapter XI 

Problems of Incubation and Brooding 

WE have reached the most interesting as well as most 
difficult and important problem pertaining to the poultry 
industry, viz., the development of the chick. Its development 
in the egg as an embryo and the aftergrowth of the baby chick 
are at the very foundation of successful poultry culture. If 
the foundation is successfully laid there is hope that the super- 
structure will be enduring. There can be but little profit in 
poultry culture unless large numbers of chicks can be correctly 
hatched and successfully reared. 

The whole problem goes back to the quality of the egg, 
and this depends on the character of the foundation stock. 
This hinges on many factors, such as feeding, breeding, en- 
vironment, and the personality of the breeder. Many shake 
their heads and say "There's nothing in it." The trouble is 
they have not the patience and courage to grapple with its 
problems. These are not so easy to solve as may appear on 
the surface. The wisest fail at times. 

Producing the Ideal Egg 

Take the problem of producing a perfect egg for incuba- 
tion. Does it mean nothing more than shell, albumen, and 
yolk? It rather means a shell of ideal shape and texture; egg- 
contents containing the exact nutrients required to develop 
the embryo; and an ideal germinal vesicle, one that contains 
all the possibilities of size, shape, color, vigor, and productive- 
ness required to fulfill the ideal in the breeder's mind. 

It is an easy matter to err in the selection of foundation 
stock. There may be some taint of disease or disqualification 
that escapes observation, and years of breeding may be neces- 
sary to eliminate them. Feeding, environment and heredity 
determine the character of the embryo. Much that has been 
said in preceding chapters bears on this problem. When the 
best possible egg has been produced, if it does not receive 
proper care its virtue is soon lost. 

. [137] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 
Conserving the Fertile Egg 

1. Gather the eggs twice daily. Do not jar or crack them. 
The vitelline membrane is very delicate and is easily ruptured. 

2. Keep eggs in a room free from drafts, dampness or bad 
odors. The room temperature should be 60 degrees, not less 
than 55 degrees nor more than 65 degrees. At 70 degrees an 
egg incubates. 

3. Turn the eggs daily. If they are kept in a 12-dozen 
case they can be turned by shifting the case to the opposite 
side. If kept in cabinet drawers with sliding frames, several 
dozen can be turned with one motion. 

4. Eggs received by express or parcel post should be al- 
lowed to rest for twelve hours to allow the egg structures to 
be properly composed. 

5. Do not keep eggs for hatching longer than 10 days if 
it can be avoided. From this date on the hatchability of eggs 
vanishes very rapidly. 

6. Do not wash eggs. After washing they deteriorate rap- 
idly. If they are only slightly soiled the soiled spots can be 
removed with a damp cloth without wetting the whole egg. 

7. Number each egg on the large end according to the pen 
from which it was obtained. In case of trapnesting and ped- 
igree breeding the number of the leg-band should also be 
marked. 

8. It is a good plan to test all eggs for specific gravity, using 
only those for setting that have dense contents. 

9. It will pay to test all eggs with a lamp tester. This will 
detect any with thin shells and with cracks, or dents, or con- 
taining blood spots, or with yolks adhering to the shell. It 
will also detect eggs with broken vitelline membrane, in which 
the yolk becomes fused with the other contents of the egg. 

A home made egg-tester will answer all purposes. Using 
half inch lumber make a box six inches square and twelve 
inches high. On one side opposite the lamp flame make a hole 
two inches in diameter. Cover this hole with a piece of 
leather and in the center make a hole one inch in diameter. 
If a mirror is placed opposite this hole it will reflect the light 
through the egg. The top should be covered with tin con- 
taining an aperture about three inches in diameter to allow 
the escape of fumes from the lamp. A picture of such a tester 
will be found on page 64. 

[138] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 




This is the way to handle chicks for profit 



Selecting Eggs for Incubation 

If pedigree hatching is pursued, eggs from a given hen or. 
a given mating are numbered and only those used with the 
sitting hen or the pedigree tray, as the case may be. Eggs 
that should not be set comprise those that are unusually large 
or small, uneven in shape, round eggs, elongated eggs, stale 
eggs, dirty eggs, thin-shelled, rough-shelled or mottled eggs, 
and eggs with low specific gravity. Eggs that may safely be 
set are those that are ovate in shape with smooth and even 
texture and of high specific gravity. Specific gravity may be 
determined by the magic tester, or by weighing with the hand, 
or by noting the size of the air cell with the lamp tester. If 
cell is large the specific gravity will be low. 

Changes in Incubation 

During the process of incubation the air cell gradually in- 
creases in size, so that when the chick is ready to be hatched 
the air cell occupies about one-third of the shell. The yellow 
yolk is not all used but is retained in the egg to be at the last 
absorbed into the abdomen of the chick to provide nourish- 

[139] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

ment during the first three or four days of chick life. The 
albumen is used as nourishment by the developing embryo. 
The shell becomes soft and easily broken on account of the 
action of the carbon dioxide. 

The most wonderful changes, however, take place in the 
embryo. When the sperm cell fuses with the germ cell the 
resulting embryo is but a single, primordial cell, but before 
the egg leaves the oviduct the embryo has become two cells, 
known as the blastoderm. At this point development is ar- 
rested until favoring conditions occur outside the parent body. 
Sometimes the egg is retained in the body for a considerable 
period, incubation sets in, later the embryo dies, and the result 
is what is known as a stale fresh-laid egg. 

The following are some of the changes that take place in 
the embryo as it progresses toward the fully formed chick: — 

At the end of the first day growth is apparent and blood 
vessels can be seen. 

At the end of the fifth day the eye and heart and lungs have 
made their appearnce with radiating blood vessels. 

At the end of the 10th day the bones and muscles are quite 
well developed. 

By the end of the 15th day the skin and feathers are 
well developed. 

On the 18th day the first peep is heard, and on the 
19th day the beak penetrates the enveloping membrane and 
the process of hatching begins. 

How the Chick Hatches 

Before hatching takes place the embryo must be fully de- 
veloped. To accomplish this requires a definite number of 
heat units. When the proper temperature is maintained the 
embryo receives the correct number of heat units in about 
19 days, and hatching then begins. If the temperature 
is run too high, hatching begins before the 19th day. If run 
at too low a temperature, the time of hatching is sometimes 
prolonged to the 24th day. It is a good sign when the hatch 
comes off on time. 

Hatching begins by thrusting the beak through the mem 
brane that encloses the chick into the air space at the large 
end of the egg. The shell is then pipped. If pipping occurs 
near the small end of the egg it shows an abnormal condition, 
and the chick may not be able to hatch. After the shell is 

[140] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 




A good hatch 



pipped the chick remains quiet for six to ten hours and then 
begins the work of extricating itself in earnest. The body 
of the chick is turned in the shell, the membrane enclosing the 
chick turning with it. As it turns, the shell is pipped until 
a circular cut is made around the egg. The remaining process 
is chiefly muscular. By pushing with its feet in one direction 
and with its shoulders in the opposite direction the two parts 
of the shell are separated, and the chick emerges into the outer 
world. 

Kind of Incubation 

There are two kinds of incubation — natural and artificial. 
Natural incubation is accomplished by natural means, artificial 
by human devices. Which is to be preferred? It is not un- 
common to hear the following statement : "During the present 
season I have had poor success. All my chicks were hatched 
with an incubator. I have lost nearly all of them. Last season 
I hatched with hens and lost very few." 

Two things must be noted, first, that without any doubt 
a hen hatches a better chick than an incubator and, second, 
that we must not blame the incubator for all the losses among 
chicks. If the cause was sifted out it would undoubtedly be 
found that the losses were due to faulty brooding rather than 
to imperfect incubation. The art of brooding, notwithstanding 
all modern improvements, is a long road from perfection. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

There is, however, a well-founded prejudice against arti- 
ficial incubation. Prominent breeders hatch all their breeding 
stock with hens, believing that the incubator chick has a weak- 
ness entailed upon it that in time undermines the vigor of the 
flock. This prejudice is only increased when a farmer's wife 
has no trouble in raising 400 to 600 hen-hatched chicks, while 
her neighbor who hatches many more with an incubator has 
nothing to show for her labor at the end of the season. There 
is no reason why an incubator properly constructed and cor- 
rectly managed should not hatch as good a chick as the hen 
that dances on her nest and often deserts it at the critical 
moment. When artificial incubation and brooding are brought 
to exact sciences this prejudice will disappear. 

Natural Incubation 

Natural incubation is accomplished by heat from the sun, 
from fermentation of decaying vegetation, and from the body 
of the parent. It is usually accomplished by the heat of the 
hen's body. When a hen becomes broody she enters into a 
fever (this is denied by some), and her temperature rises from 
101 degrees to 107 degrees. This high temperature is com- 
municated to the egg so that during most of the period of 
natural incubation the upper surface of the egg records a tem- 
perature of 106 degrees. For sucessful incubation three con- 
ditions are required : 

Adequate heat, sufficient moisture and a supply of oxygen. 
All of these conditions are provided by the sitting hen. Her 
own temperature provides the heat, her body conserves the 
moisture produced by oxidation within the egg, and the porous 
nature of the feather allows the access of all the oxygen needed 
for the growing embryo. There is no excess of heat causing 
the coagulation of albumen within the egg. There is no 
excess of moisture causing the chick to drown. There is no 
lack of oxygen causing suffocation and death in the shell. 

Care of the Sitting Hen 

The nest is first provided. This may be a box, 12 inches 
by 14 inches. The depth may be six inches. It is a good plan 
to put sand or sweet soil in the bottom, and, after properly 
shaping it, to line the nest with cut straw or fine hay. One or 
two nest eggs are then put in place, and the hen is secured. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Before placing on the nest she is carefully dusted with insect 
powder and some of it is also dusted in the nest. It is a good 
plan to change the hen from the laying house to the nest 
at night. By morning she will probably be contented with 
her new surroundings, and the setting of 13 or 14 eggs can be 
placed under her. Dusting should again be done about the 
15th day, and at that time the nesting material should be 
changed. Occasionally the nest should be examined, and, if 
any of the eggs have been soiled by a broken egg, they should 
be washed in tepid water and new nesting material provided. 
If this is not done the embryos will smother, as the albumen 
from the broken egg completely closes the pores of all sur- 
faces that it smears. 



Where Shall the Hen be Kept? 

Not in the laying house, for that means almost certain dis- 
aster. There are three good methods of providing room for 
the sitting hen. One method is to make the nest in the brood 
coop. This is provided with an outside slatted runway, so that 
she can secure any needed exercise, and a place is provided 
where food can be placed before her without interference from 
other fowls. When the hen hatches, the nesting material is 
removed, and the coop becomes the home of the hen and 
brood. It should be stated here that the hen should be kept 
confined for at least two weeks. After that she may be allowed 
to range with the brood, at least in the afternoons. 

A second method is to provide a small building with com- 
partments. I have used this system for several years. The 
building is 12x24 feet. There is an aisle through the center 
and on each side two rows of compartments. The lower floor 
should be concrete and the upper floor wood. The rooms are 
three feet wide and four feet deep. This provides for 32 rooms 
in the building, and, if one hen is placed in each room, that 
number of hens can be accommodated. Two can be put in each 
room, if they are taken from the same breeding pen. 

In that way 64 hens covering 800 to 900 eggs can be han- 
dled with little trouble. If the nest boxes are six inches deep 
there will be trouble when the hatch comes off, for some of 
the chicks will creep out of the nest and, unable to get back, 
will become chilled. This danger is avoided b)^ making a few 
frames of 1x4 inch boards the exact size of the nest box and 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

setting one on each nest box as the hatch comes due. Only 
a few of these will be needed as only a few hens are usually 
set at one time. The building described above is very useful 
in many ways, providing a place for fattening market fowls 
and for conditioning birds for the show. 

The feed kept before sitting hens consists of equal parts 
of shelled corn, whole wheat and hulled oats. Water is pro- 
vided in cups and the feed in small boxes upon the walls. The 
third method is by a large room with nests around the walls. 
The hens are confined on the nests and allowed to come off 
for feeding once a day. A second visit is necessary to see 
that the hens get back on the nests in good shape. When the 
chicks hatch, as many as 25 can be given to a single hen. The 
remaining hens are returned to the laying house as it is not 
best to set them a second time. Chicks from special matings 
should be toe-marked or leg-banded so as to preserve their 
identity. See toe-mark chart on page 162. 

Artificial Incubation 

For the commercial plant or the breeder who handles the 
heavy meat breeds or the non-sitting Mediterranean breeds, 
artificial incubation is almost a necessity. The incubator is 
his boon. 

There are mammoth incubators, accommodating as many as 
600,000 eggs, and baby incubators, designed for only 50 eggs. 
There are hot water machines and hot air machines. Some 
are heated by coal stoves, others by oil burners, gas, or elec- 
tricity. As to whether hot water or hot air produces the best 
chicks, opinion is divided. A hot air machine with adequate 
provision for moisture seems to have the preference. An in- 
cubator, to have any consideration at all, should provide for 
the three conditions of successful incubation, viz., heat, moist- 
ure and ventilation. The incubator that fulfills these condi- 
tions in the same degree as the mother hen is the one for 
which poultry keepers everywhere are searching. For the 
average farm, the incubator that approaches nearest to the 
above requirements is the one to purchase. 

It is a safe rule to follow explicitly the directions of the 
manufacturer in setting up, regulating, and operating the 
machine. 

The following rules are of general application and may be 
helpful : 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

1. Set the machine in a cellar, where an even temperature 
can be maintained, or in a room with a firm floor, where the 
air is pure and the temperature about 60 degrees. 

2. Make sure that the machine is level. If not, the high 
corner will be hotter than the low corner, resulting in an un- 
even hatch. 

3. Do not put the eggs in the machine until it has been 
regulated so at to run at an even temperature of not less than 
102 degrees. 

4. If the machine has been used before, give it a thorough 
cleansing and disinfection. A weak solution of creolin in hot 
water makes a good disinfectant. Every surface of the in- 
terior of the machine should be treated, for the germs of 
coccidial and white diarrhea often lurk in the incubator and 
infect the whole brood at hatching time. If there are nurseries 
lined with burlap, new material should be used, and all trays 
should be carefully disinfected. 

5. Keep the temperature at 103 degrees during the first two 
weeks. During the third week the temperature should be 
104 degrees, except that during the period of hatching no harm 
will come if the temperature reaches 105 degrees. Remember 
that the temperature cannot go below 90 degrees or above 107 
degrees without seriously injuring the quality of the chicks 
that may hatch. 

6. About the fourteenth day look for a sudden rise in tem- 
perature. This is due to the animal heat generated by the de- 
veloping embryos. It amounts to several degrees, ranging 
from 4 degrees to 10 degrees. Unless the machine is watched 
at this time and regulated so as to make allowance for this 
natural increase, the hatch may be injured. Temperature can 
be regulated by the size of the flame and by adjusting the 
thermostat. 

7. Begin turning the eggs on the third day and turn twice 
a day until the 18th day. Turning is accomplished by remov- 
ing some of the eggs and shuffling gently. Do not turn eggs 
after the eighteenth day. 

8. At the end of the 18th day close the machine and keep it 
closed until the hatch is completed. Watch the hen. She sits 
close while the chicks are hatching. When the hatch is com- 
pleted, remove the tray and put the chicks in the nursery. 
This will be about the end of the 21st day. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

9. Do not cool the eggs until after the seventh day. Watch 
the hen. She sits close during the first week, hardly leaving 
the nest for food. Beginning with the eighth day, cool the 
eggs once a day up to the 18th day. Many chicks are ruined 
by too much cooling. If we are so careful that the tender, 
baby chick shall not become chilled, why should we not con- 
sider the tender embryo in the shell? Cool the eggs grad- 
ually. When they feel slightly cool when applied to the eye- 
lids, then is the time to return the trays to the incubator. 
Keep the incubator closed while the eggs are cooling. 

10. Keep the bulb of the thermometer on a level with the 
top of the eggs, but it should not touch any egg. It will then 
register the temperature of the air in the brood chamber. 
Every thermometer should be tested for accuracy. 

11. Keep the room temperature at 60 degrees. You cannot 
maintain the proper temperature in the incubator if the room 
temperature goes below 50 degrees or above 70 degrees. 

12. Provide an abundance of pure air. A crowded, ill- 
ventilated living room is not the best place for an incubator. 

Why do Chicks Die in the Shell? 

Many chicks die in the shell because the germ is weak. 
They develop until the hatching period and then have not the 
vital energy to get out of the shell. Many are infected with 
disease germs to which they succumb before they are able to 
pip the shell. Some are drowned because of too much moist- 
ure. The air cell should be watched to make sure that the 
eggs are properly dried out at hatching time. Some die for 
want of moisture. The membrane surrounding the chick be- 
comes dried to the outer membrane, and the chick is unable 
to turn in the shell. Some die because overheated. The al- 
bumen of their blood becomes coagulated by the excessive 
heat and death ensues. Some become chilled, which means a 
loss of vitality. Some perish on account of rough handling. 
The vitelline membrane becomes ruptured or the shell be- 
comes cracked, and in either event death ensues. 

What is the Cause of Cripples? 

A very common cause is excessive heat in the incubator. 
It is a very rare thing for a hen to hatch a cripple. She does 
not permit the temperature to rise above 107 degrees. Cripples 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

arise when the chicks are not able to turn in the shell or when 
held in one cramped position for a considerable time. Uneven 
temperature during the period of incubation is the cause usual- 
ly assigned for these deformities. 

Brooding 

Brooding, as well as incubation, may be natural or artifi- 
cial. Natural brooding, with the hen, solves the problem of 
heat in an inexpensive way. It is a common thing on the farm 
to set a number of hens at the same time that the incubator 
is set. When the incubator comes off the chicks are given to 
the hens, until each hen has about twenty, and then they are 
put out in coops. It has been found that incubator chicks do 
not do as well under hens as chicks hatched by the natural 
method. They do not do as well as under an artificial system 
of brooding. When large numbers of chicks are to be raised, 
the incubator and artificial brooder are a necessity. For the 
average farmer, better results will be obtained by the natural 
method, for there is no question but that the hen-hatched and 
the hen-brooded chick is superior. 

Artificial Brooding 

There are several types of brooders on the market. The 
nreless brooder depends upon the heat generated by the 
chicks. When the chicks are a month old or older this brooder 
can be used to advantage. It can also be used for smaller 
chicks in a room provided with artificial heat. The feather 
brooder is one type of this kind that is quite popular. The 
ordinary box in which the brood chamber is heated by a lamp 
is used when small numbers of chicks are handled. Some of 
these give good results. The small colony house provided 
with universal hover, the heat being furnished by a lamp on 
the outside of building, is not always satisfactory as the lamp, 
though enclosed, is exposed to more or less draft. The stove 
brooder seems to have solved the brooding problem better than 
any other device. The stove is heated by hard or soft coal 
or kerosene, according to the type. It is provided with a 
regulator so that an even temperature can be maintained. The 
hover throws the heat down upon the backs of the chicks and, 
as there are different zones of heat from the stove outward, 
the chicks are able to find the zone of heat adapted to their 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

needs, and there is but little danger of overheating. Some 
hovers are provided with outside curtains or enclosures, but 
as a rule they are open. The oil heater seems to have some 
advantage over the coal heater as it maintains a steady heat 
and is not so liable to go out. 

The Baby Chick 

When safely hatched the tender chick is just ready to 
begin the struggle of life. There are many dangers ahead. 
To avoid these requires all the resources and skill of the poul- 
try keeper. Nature has provided it with sufficient nourishment 




Plan of brood coop for hen and chicks 

for 72 hours in the yolk, but recently absorbed into its ab- 
domen. While the chicks are drying and cooling in the 
nursery of the incubator, the brooder should be gotten ready. 
If a box brooder, the lamp should be cleaned and filled with 
fresh oil, the wick trimmed so as to make an even and round 
flame, free from sharp points, and the hover is cleansed and 
disinfected. 

If a stove brooder, it is thoroughly cleaned so as to remove 
any rust or soot that would intercept the draft. The pipes 
are examined, and any in bad condition are replaced with new 
sections. A hole in the pipe interferes with the draft. The fire 
is built and the heat regulated so that a thermometer test in- 
dicates a temperature of 100 degrees in the outer zone of the 
hover. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Everything is now ready for the chicks. Only sound chicks 
are brought to the brooder. Cripples and others that were 
helped out of the shell should not be saved. This is a time 
when sentiment must be waived for the common good of the 
brood. There is this consolation that, if not killed, they would 
die a lingering death, but the chief reason is because they are 
probably infected with disease germs and thus a menace to 
the whole hatch. A merciful way to kill a chick is to pinch 
it under the wings between the thumb and forefinger. After 
the chicks have been in the nursery twenty-four hours, they 
are then transferred to the brooder in a warm basket, every 









T 


" "1 


<* 


w 




' >W; 


. 4* 


■ 



Another convenient. brood coop 



precaution being taken to keep them from becoming chilled. 
They are placed under the hover at once. To prevent any 
danger of chilling and to get them acquainted with their foster 
mother it is customary to place a guard around the outside of 
the hover during the first day. This can be made of muslin 
or wire screen or even of boards. After the first day or two 
it can be safely removed. No feed should be given on the first 
day. On the second day milk can be set before them. At 
the beginning of the third day they have been out of the shell 
72 hours and it will be safe to give them solid food. This 
should be rolled oats or pin head oats fed in shallow litter. 
Sweet milk and oats constitute their ration during the first 
week. On the sixth day after being placed in the brooder, a 
dry mash is given in a self feeder on an elevated platform. 
The chicks will soon find their way to it. Use the mash out- 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

lined in Ration No. 1 in Chapter 4. The mash, oats, and milk 
constitute the ration until the end of the second week. At 
that time a change is made to ration No. 2. The change is 
made gradually, and at the end of the fourth week change to 
Ration No. 3. If milk is available throughout the feeding 
period, the amount of meat scrap in the mash may be reduced 
5 per cent. The mash can be fed moist if desired. 

After the second week, green or succulent feed should be 
supplied daily. The milk is given in the forenoon, as it will 
always be sweet at that time. At noon it is removed, the 
vessel cleaned, and water given in the afternoon. 

A cool room adjoining the brooder room is always recom- 
mended as an essential of successful brooding. This room is 
connected with the brooder room by an opening or a hinged 
door. If there is but one room, the brooder is placed in one 
corner or end of the room so that the other portion can be used 
as a cool room for feeding and exercise. The floors should 
be covered with two inches of clean, gritty sand, and upon 
this is placed about an inch of clean, bright, short-cut alfalfa 
or alsike clover. Chaff from the barn or straw stack is usually 
unsafe as it contains the spores of Aspergillus. Short-cut rye 
straw or wheat straw might answer if bright and clean. The 
scratch feed can be thrown in the litter in the cool room, but 
should never be fed in litter contaminated with the droppings 
of chicks or other filth. A good plan is to provide a feed box 
three feet square and two inches deep. The feed is thrown 
in litter upon the bottom of this box. When the chicks are 
through feeding, the box is removed and in that way is kept 
reasonably clean. This will answer while the chicks are small. 

The temperature under the hover can be gradually reduced 
during the first week from 100 degrees to 95 degrees; in the 
second week from 95 degrees to 90 degrees; and in the third 
week to 85 degrees. If the weather is mild the chicks can be 
weaned from the stove brooder when they are four weeks old 
and removed to a colony house with fireless brooder. A very 
simple affair will answer for the fireless brooder, a frame, with 
legs at corners, covered with flannel or muslin and a border 
around the sides. 

Chicks should never be allowed to become chilled, for a 
chilled chick is a ruined chick. This happens when they are 
unable to find their way to the brooder or when the lamp or 
stove fails for want of fuel or attention. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

When chicks become cannibals, or toe-pickers, it indicates 
a lack of protein in their feed. The dry mash recommended 
will help cure the habit. It is claimed that direct sunshine 
contributes to the formation of this habit. If the lights are 
given a coat of white paint it will help matters. 

Key to Successful Brooding 

The following is a summary of the essentials of successful 
artificial brooding : — 

1. An even and adequate temperature; a room without 
drafts and comfortable. 

2. An abundance of light but without direct sunshine. 

3. Plenty of room for exercise; a shallow litter to encour- 
age exercise. 




A popular type of brooder and 'colony house 



4. An opportunity to get out upon mother earth and into 
fresh air as often and as early as weather conditions permit. 
In case of long confinement, place green sods upon the brooder 
floor. 

5. A system of feeding that meets the demands of the grow- 
ing chick; not too much variety at first; sharp sand for grit 
is better than prepared grit ; no feed for the first 72 hours after 
hatching; no underfeeding, no overfeeding. Green feed and a 
dry mash after the first week. 

6. Extreme cleanliness ; this means cleaning the brooder 
room frequently and replenishing the litter; it means clean 
vessels, frequently scalded; it means an elevated platform for 
the mash and water fount. 

7. Immediate removal from the brood of any chicks that 
show symptoms of disease. This is the only road of safety. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

8. Fresh air in abundance. Look after the ventilation. 

9. A constant warfare upon lice and mites. Avoid fumes 
that would injure the chicks. 

10. A dry floor. Concrete, covered with sand, and then lit- 
ter is the best. 

11. An adjacent room or a portion of the brooder room set 
apart as a cool place for exercise and feeding. 

12. The house must be vermin proof. The runway to the 
outside should be closed at night to protect against cats, rats 
and other vermin. 

Artificial brooding presents one of the most difficult prob- 
lems connected with poultry culture. It is the great stumbling- 
stone of the industry. It is hoped that the few suggestions 
given above will be helpful. 



[152] 



Chapter XII 

From Producer to Consumer 

MUCH study and effort are given to production but often 
the marketing end of the industry is neglected. To buy 
the best, to produce the best, and to sell well should be the 
aim in poultry culture. 

Disposing of Surplus Stock 

There are four possible ways in which the producer can 
dispose of his surplus poultry : 

He can sell direct to the consumer. 

He can sell to the huckster who visits the farm. 

He can sell to the local dealer in the village. 

He can sell to the city commission merchant. 

The first method insures a higher price and greater profit 
for it eliminates one or more middlemen. This method would 
be used to a greater extent were it not for the difficulty of find- 
ing the purchaser and the frequent impossibility of supplying 
his needs promptly and regularly. Occasionally a hotel or 
restaurant can be found that will appreciate the opportunity 
of purchasing direct from the producer. On one occasion I 
sold a large number of springs to a Chicago restaurant. They 
were crate fattened, dressed and shipped as required, and the 
deal proved profitable to both parties. 

The second method saves the expense of delivery, but 
frequently the price is not satisfactory, and unless the huckster 
is known there is some risk in encouraging him to visit the 
premises. 

The third method, of selling through the local merchant, 
is common and usually satisfactory, but the local dealer must 
have his profit, and before the product reaches the consumer 
it must pass through several hands all of whom must exact 
a toll. 

The fourth method is perhaps one of the best. If an honest 
commission man is selected, the producer is enabled to get 
a larger share of the final selling price of the poultry than when 
he sells to a local dealer. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

From what has been said it will be noted that the sale of 
poultry is not usually a producer-to-consumer transaction. 
The huckster, the local dealer, the public carrier, the city com- 
mission merchant, the inspector, the conditioner, the jobber 
and the retailer may all have a hand in bringing the finished 
carcass to the table of the consumer, and each is entitled to 
pay for his services. The consumer pays and the producer 
loses. If the farmer properly conditions his fowls and sells 
to the consumer, either direct or through his commission firm, 
it would mean larger profit for him and a reduced price to the 
consumer. 

What About the Commission Merchant? 

Undoubtedly he performs a valuable service for the pro- 
ducer. If found to be honest, competent and prompt in service 
he should be cherished as a friend. The dishonest dealer — for- 
tunately there are few of this class — should be forsaken as soon 
as discovered. Write Prairie Farmer's Protective Union, Chi- 
cago, 111., for names of reliable commissionmen. 

Story of a Farmer 

An Illinois farmer shipped a coop of choice spring chickens 
to a commission firm in Chicago. The gross weight at the 
farm was 194 pounds, the coop weighed 54 pounds, making a 
net weight for the fowls of 140 pounds. After considerable 
delay he received returns for 117 pounds at 19 cents per pound, 
which was the minimum price on the market for that day. The 
shrinkage in this case was 23 pounds, which, valued at the sell- 
ing price, meant a loss of $4.37. Under average conditions 
the shrinkage should have been not more than 10 pounds. 

What Happened? 

Several things could have happened with this shipment to 
cause such a loss, viz., failure to water and feed the fowls be- 
fore cooping; faulty condition of the coop, allowing the escape 
of one or more fowls; overcrowding, which may have caused 
the suffocation of one or more ; work of "light fingers" among 
employes of the express company or the commission firm ; dis- 
honest weights at the receiving end ; slow action on the part 
of the carrying agent. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

The Story of Another Farmer 

Another Illinois farmer shipped his surplus poultry to a 
certain commission firm for a number of years only to discover 
that the shrinkage on each coop was from twenty to thirty 
pounds. Satisfied that he was not getting a square deal, he 
changed to a new comission firm, and a close comparison of 
weights for a term of years showed that the shrinkage was 
never more than ten pounds and often there was no shrinkage 
whatever. 

How He Won Out 

The farmer made good by observing the following sug- 
gestions : 

He watered and fed all fowls before cooping. 

He made a memorandum of the number of fowls in -each 
coop and their net weight. This was for comparison with re- 
turns from the sale. 

He made sure that the coop was strong and made secure 
for the journey. 

He avoided overcrowding; not more than twenty average 
fowls in an average coop. 

He provided food for the journey, especially when fowls 
were to be cooped over night. This was planned so that when 
the fowls appeared upon the market they could be sold with 
empty crops. This plan reduces shrinkage to a minimum. 

He kept tab on his commission merchant. This is often 
overlooked. The very few firms that are crooked make it 
necessary to watch all. Quoting Miller Purvis, an authority 
on poultry wisdom : "The reputation of the commission mer- 
chant should be carefully looked into before making consign- 
ments as the cities are full of swindling commission merchants, 
although there is no lack of honest ones if the trouble be taken 
to find them." 

What to Market 

The following classes of market fowls can be disposed of 
in season. To hold any class longer than the demand con- 
tinues or market conditions warrant means a waste of feed and 
a loss of profit. 

1. Springs. These are young cockerels and pullets held 
over from the crop of the preceding season and are put upon 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

the market in the spring months when the prices are high. It 
will pay to condition them. 

2. Broilers. These are young cockerels and pullets which 
are usually marketed in June and July at a weight of two 
pounds to three pounds. As broilers they may command a 
better price than if held over till the following winter. 

3. Roasters. These are the surplus cockerels held over 
till September. They are put on a fattening ration and sold for 
fall consumption. 

4. Culls. These are fowls which are culled from the lay- 
ing flock, usually in September. If conditioned they command 
good prices. 

5. Capons. These are desexed cockerels, which attain 
large size and are in great demand at fancy prices. They are 
conditioned for the holiday trade, or in February for the late 
winter market. 

Selling Purebred Stock 

The keeper of purebred poultry has sources of income that 
the mongrel breeder does not enjoy. He can sell his eggs at 
prices much better than the general market affords. Purebred 
stock has several outlets, as day-old chicks, breeding stock, 
and show birds. 

Day-old chick industry. Those who have had experience 
in selling baby chicks know that the demand is always greater 
than the supply. This industry has grown to mammoth pro- 
portions. There are incubators in use that will accommodate 
more than 500,000 eggs. Orders are always booked in ad- 
vance. Shipments are made in specially prepared cartons of 
corrugated paper. It is customary to give each chick a drink 
of tepid water before shipping, but no food is given. Fed 
chicks invariably perish. 

The bottom of box is provided with cut straw ; the size of 
the compartment is reduced if the number of chicks is smaller 
than the capacity ; in very warm weather extra openings are 
made for ventilation if necessary; and chicks are shipped when 
one day old, not later if a long journey is before them. 

Where do the hatcheries get the eggs? It is customary to 
establish purebred flocks among near-by farmers and these 
furnish eggs at better than market prices. These flocks are 
generally free range flocks sustained at a high standard. The 
purchaser of chicks from the large hatcheries has the ad- 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

vantage of securing stock from farm produced eggs and 
hatched under scientific, up-to-date methods. 

Breeding stock. In every purebred flock there are always 
surplus cockerels and pullets that can be sold at good prices 
for breeding purposes. Only the best are saved for this pur- 
pose, the inferior stock going to market. 

Show birds. These are extra fine specimens, and they are 
always in demand for exhibition or for special matings in line 
breeding. 

Fabulous prices are sometimes paid for birds of outstand- 
ing quality. 

Breeding stock and show birds are shipped in light crates. 
Before shipment they should be gone over carefully to make 
sure that there are no disqualifications. Feet and shanks 
should be washed and all dirt removed from under scales. 
When two or more male birds are shipped to the same address 
they should be put in separate coops or partitions should be 
placed between them. 

A41 this requires advertising that producer and consumer 
may be brought together. 

Advertising. Unusual care must be exercised that all ad- 
vertising may be done with wisdom and discretion. Fortunes 
have been sunk in advertising. It is folly to use large display 
ads in poultry journals when the quantity and quality of the 
stock in possession do not warrant. If the breeder is a be- 
ginner or has a limited surplus it would be far better to use 
a small classified advertisement in the local paper or a go6d 
farm paper or in his poultry journal. This will usually sell his 
surplus and the expense will be but a trifle. If the breeder 
has a large surplus backed by superior quality he can well 
afford to launch out into a more expensive advertising cam- 
paign, and that means a display ad in the poultry journal, for 
only through that source can fancy prices be obtained. 

Selling Eggs 

The value of eggs produced in the United States in 1919 
was approximately $750,000,000. The number of chicken eggs 
produced on the farms was 1,656,267,200 dozens; 35 per cent 
of these were consumed on the farm. Considering that an egg 
is very fragile and easily damaged, it must require an 
enormous expenditure of labor and money to transport this 
wonderful output from the nests on the farm to the tables 'of 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

the consumers. The season of large production covers only a 
few months of spring and early summer. 

Were it not for the cold storage plants there would be a 
glut on the market in the season of high production, and prices 
would be disastrously low. Storage eggs may have a tendency 
to lower the prices of fresh eggs in winter, but the fresh egg 
is always in demand and remunerative prices are maintained in 
spite of the release of cold storage stocks. 

The Chicago Mercantile Exchange gives the following rules 
for grading market eggs : 

1. Eggs shall be classed as fresh gathered, storage packed, 
and refrigerator. 

2. Eggs shall be graded as extras, firsts, ordinary firsts, 
and dirties. 

3. The term "loss" comprises all eggs that are rotten, 
broken (leaking), spots, broken yolked, frozen (split), hatched 
(blood veined), and sour. Very small, very dirty, cracked 
(not leaking), badly heated, badly shrunken, salted, and chilled 
eggs shall be counted one-third loss in all grades excepting 
"Seconds," "Dirties," and "Checks." 

This rule applies to the grading of eggs when they are to 
be sold in the shell, and does not mean that such eggs desig- 
nated as "loss" (except rotten eggs) shall not be used for can- 
ning or drying purposes when same are of a sweet or whole- 
some nature. 

4. Fresh gathered extras shall be free from small and dirty 
eggs, and shall contain fresh, reasonably full, strong in body, 
sweet eggs as follows : 

February IS to May IS 90% 

May IS to Oct. 31 80% 

Oct. 31 to Dec. 31 70% 

December 31 to February 15 80% 

The balance may be defective in strength or fullness, but 
must be sweet. There may be a total average loss: 

September 1st to June 1st % dozen per case 

June 1st to September 1st 1 dozen per case 

5. Fresh gathered firsts shall be reasonably clean, of good 
average size, and shall contain fresh, reasonably full, strong 
in body, sweet eggs as follows : 

February 15 to May IS 70% 

Balance of the year 45% 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 




Mr. Osburn on his way to town with eggs. Eggs for shipment are first packed in cartons, 
then in the crates. They seldom break when shipped in this way 

The balance, other than the loss, may be defective in 
strength or fullness, but must be sweet. There may be a total 
average loss : 

September 1 to June 1 2 dozen per case 

June 1 to September 1 \ l / 2 dozen per case 

If the loss exceeds this amount by not over 33^ per cent, 
the eggs shall be good delivery upon allowance of the excess. 

6. Fresh gathered ordinary firsts shall contain the follow 
ing percentage of fresh, reasonably full, sweet eggs : 

February 15 to May IS 60% 

Balance of the year 30% 

The balance, other than the loss, may be defective in 
strength or fullness, but must be sweet. There may be a total 
average loss : 

September 1 to June 1 3 dozen per case 

June 1 to September 1 \y 2 dozen per case 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

If the loss exceeds this amount by not more than 33j^ per 
cent, the eggs shall be good delivery upon allowance of the 
excess. 

7. Dirties must be of useful quality, sweet flavored, and 
must not lose over one and one-half dozen per case, loss to con- 
sist of rots, spots, and checked or cracked eggs — checks or 
cracks to count three for one. No. 2 Dirties may be off- 
flavored, not musty, and must not lose over three dozen per 
case. 

Storage packed eggs are eggs put up for storage, and re- 
frigerator eggs are eggs that have been in storage. The grades 
of these two classes are not given, as the producer is interested 
chiefly in "fresh gathered eggs." 

Outlet for Eggs 

The following are some of the methods of disposing of 
eggs : 

1. Selling to the huckster. This saves time and labor in 
delivery. 

The purchaser comes to the farm door and pays cash for 
his purchases. In remote sections and in busy seasons this is 
a great advantage, and the farmer can well afford the sacrifice 
in price. 

2. Selling to the country merchant. In this event payment 
is usually made in merchandise. If the merchant breaks even 
on the eggs he still has opportunity for profit on goods given 
in exchange. 

3. Selling to private customers. This method is becoming 
more popular each year. Sometimes the private customer is 
secured in the town where the producer does his trading, 
sometimes in the great city through the help of personal friends. 
Shipments are usually made by parcel post. A good method 
of packing is by using the Humpty-dumpty case. Each egg 
is first wrapped in paper and then packed in suitable card- 
board container holding a dozen eggs. After the case is lined 
with strong paper to prevent leakage, the containers are packed 
snugly, and after proper labeling, delivered to the post car- 
rier. There should be no loose eggs in the package as these 
are the ones that are usually broken. 

Where eggs are shipped to private customers great pains 
are taken to select eggs uniform in shape, size, and color, and 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

perfectly fresh. The retainer is returned at the producer's 
expense. 

4. Selling to the commission merchant. This is usually 
done by the local merchant, but if eggs are produced in large 
numbers it is advisable to ship in 30 dozen cases to the city 
merchant. 

5. Selling eggs for hatching. A setting of eggs is counted 
as 15. Eggs for hatching can be shipped by express or by 
parcel post. The safer method is by express as the package 
receives more careful handling and goes through with less 
breakage. If eggs were shipped by parcel post in baskets 
instead of in cartons, the results would undoubtedly be more 
favorable. 

Packing Eggs for Hatching 

The best method is to pack in a basket with strong handle. 
The basket is first lined with heavy paper, and a thin layer of 
excelsior is placed in the bottom. Then each egg is wrapped 
first with paper, then with excelsior, then packed in the basket. 
When the first layer of eggs is placed they are covered with 
excelsior and upon this the second layer is placed. When 
all the eggs are in snug position they are covered with a layer 
of excelsior, and over this is sewed a muslin cover. A label 
marked "EGGS FOR HATCHING" should be pasted on the 
muslin, and a tag containing the shipping address and name 
of sender is fastened to handle. Eggs packed in this way 
can be shipped safely either by express or parcel post. 

Guarantee. When eggs are sold for hatching a special 
price is expected. This ranges from $1 per 15 to $1 per egg. 
It is customary to give a guarantee to protect the purchaser in 
event of failure to secure a good hatch. What constitutes a 
good hatch? Not less than eight sound chicks. If the setting 
cost $1, each chick would cost only 12^2 cents, and the same 
quality of chick would cost about 20 cents from the hatchery. 
If the setting cost $3 the chick cost would be 20 cents, and the 
same grade from the special breeder would cost not less than 
50 cents. It must be remembered that home-hatched chicks 
are usually superior to incubator chicks that are compelled to 
undergo the ordeal of a long shipment. 

Even though the first cost may be greater, there is less 
risk in securing new stock through eggs for hatching than 
in any other way. What should the guarantee be? It is cus- 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

tomary to guarantee eight sound chicks. If the hatch falls 
below this number due to a fault in the eggs, the breeder 
should replace the infertile eggs free of charge. If the hen for- 
sakes the nest, chilling the eggs, or dances on the nest, breaking 
eggs, the purchaser will be considerate enough not to ask a 
rebate under such circumstances. In all business transactions 
there is more or less risk, and there is no reason why the pur- 
chaser should not bear his share as well as the breeder. Where 
the loss is due, not to the eggs, but to their treatment in the 
hands of the purchaser, it is only right that any replacement 
should be entirely optional with the breeder. In the case of 
high-priced eggs, it should be a rule to replace all infertile eggs 
without question, if a test is made by the tenth day. Most 
purchasers are on the square and will not take advantage of 
any guarantee to secure extra eggs without cost. Rules for 
selecting eggs for hatching are given in Chapter VI. 



' A A - A A 

« A A - A A 

* A A " A A 

* A A - A A 
- A A * A A 
« A A -.. A A 
' A A « A A 
o A A * A A 

Showing how to toe mark the baby chicks 



162] 



Chapter XIII 

Poultry Sanitation — Pests and Parasites 

NINETY per cent of all financial disappointments in poul- 
try raising can be traced to epidemics of disease ; there- 
fore a study of the prevention, diagnosis, and cure of disease 
is important. 

What, then, is the road to success? It is not the route of 
fine buildings and expensive equipment or pedigreed stock, 
but rather the highway of a healthy flock. 

What is health? It is a condition in which the tissues and 
organs of the organism function in harmony. If there is fric- 
tion anywhere there is an abnormal condition and disease. 
Health in a fowl is indicated by a good appetite, sprightly 
carriage, glossy plumage, a bright full eye, a bright red comb, 
normal droppings, and pronounced stamina. 

What is disease? It is a condition in which the cells, 
tissues and organs of the organism fail to function in harmony. 
If only one structure fails to function normally, it affects in a 
greater or less degree all the other structures, and we conclude 
that the body is diseased. 

How Can Disease be Prevented? 

Prevention is better than cure. If disease can be warded 
off it saves loss of time and money and waste of food that 
always follow in the train of every sickness. To prevent 
disease should be the aim and study of every poultry keeper. 
What are some of the methods of prevention? Here are a few. 

1. Breeding for physical stamina. The beginner is occa- 
sionally wrecked on the shoal of fancy feathers. It is possible 
to combine fine plumage and vigor, but, if a choice is to be 
made between the two, physical stamina should have 
preference. 

2. Prompt isolation. The spread of disease can be pre- 
vented by prompt isolation. An epidemic often can 
be averted by the quick removal of one sick fowl from the, 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

flock. There should always be a hospital or pest house on 
every farm where a hundred chickens can be kept. This may 
be only a room with compartments or suitable coops. It should 
be located at some distance from the other buildings. If dry, 
well ventilated and kept clean and comfortable it will be the 
means of saving many fowls and prove a good financial invest- 
ment. It is sometimes urged that it does not pay to doctor 
sick fowls, that they should be killed as soon as discovered. 
If the same principle were applied to human beings the race 
would become extinct. The truth is that there is no farm 
animal that responds more promptly to treatment than the 
fowl. The poultry attendant must be the judge and, if he finds 
that a fowl is beyond the help of remedies, the more quickly it 
is dispatched the better. In the majority of cases, however, 
good care and correct remedies mean immediate recovery. 

3. Removing the causes of disease. The causes of disease 
have been discussed briefly in preceding chapters. It will be 
sufficient at this time to enumerate the more important causes : 

(a) Overcrowding: Allowing more in the house than one 
for every four square feet of floor space. 

(b) Lack of ventilation : Failing to supply and to dis- 
tribute an abundance of fresh air. 

(c) Drafts: Permitting holes and cracks in the building ; 
failing to provide partitions in long buildings, which are al- 
ways drafty unless this precaution is taken. 

(d) Lack of sunlight : Darkness and gloom are the friends 
of disease ; sunshine and oxygen are the great germ killers. 

(e) Dampness : Health and dampness cannot abide to- 
gether. 

(f) Uncleanliness : Disease germs revel in unclean sur- 
roundings. Frequent and thorough cleaning and disinfection 
are necessary. 

(g) Lack of exercise: A watch allowed to run down and 
stand idle will corrode; the chicken is a machine that must 
have exercise in every part to maintain a healthy condition. 

(h) Improper feeding : The feeding of one grain continually 
or the constant feeding of an unbalanced ration invariably 
brings disease. 

(i) Disease germs : These are brought to the flock in many 
ways but more especially by domesticated and wild animals. 
Rats are disease carriers, also English sparrows. They go 
from farm to farm, spreading contagion. This explains why 

[1641 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

there are occasional outbreaks of disease even though the flock 
is kept under ideal conditions. 

(j) Weather conditions: Damp and cold windy weather 
often bring trouble to the flock unless there is adequate pro- 
tection. This is in evidence in the fall of the year when the 
young stock are still roosting on the ground or in crowded 
coops unprotected from sudden weather changes. 

What Should be Done When the Fowls Get Sick? 

To know the nature of the disease is half the cure. This 
is often a difficult task. Our knowledge of poultry ailments 
is incomplete and, even in some well known diseases, the 
symptoms are so obscure and the lesions so complicated that 
an error in diagnosis is not improbable. In identifying dis- 
eases, two things must be considered : External symptoms 
and internal conditions. 

How to Make a Diagnosis 

First, note external symptoms. It is not always possible 
to determine a disease by external symptoms alone. The 
same symptom may occur in several diseases. For example, 
lameness occurs in tuberculosis, liver disease, gout, bumble 
foot, rheumatism, coccidiosis, and other affections. Diarrhea 
occurs in cholera, enteritis, coccidiosis, liver disease, vent gleet, 
and mineral poisoning. It is only by comparing all external 
symptoms with conditions found in the autopsy that a correct 
conclusion can be made. Symptoms should be studied care- 
fully. Note whether there is lameness, diarrhea, swellings and 
where located, peculiarity of action, blindness, coughing, rat- 
tling, ruffled plumage, loss of appetite, empty or full crop, or 
emaciation. In the case of diarrhea, the color and consistency 
of the excreta should be observed. After a record is made of 
outward signs, then a dead bird should be examined. 

Second, Make a post mortem examination. In making an 
autopsy, the following tools are needed : A sharp knife, a pair 
of strong shears, small forceps, small scissors, a dissecting 
needle and a pair of bone forceps or, instead, a pair of small 
tin-shears. The dissecting needle can be made by forcing the 
head of a needle into a wooden handle. 

A board, two feet square, should be secured, and this is 
covered with paper. The specimen is laid upon the board, 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

back down. Sever the skin holding the thighs to the body, 
spread out the legs and tack them to the board. This will hold 
the body in position while further work progresses. Cut 
through the skin and flesh just below the point of keel. Lift 
the keel and at the same time use the shears and make a cut 
on each side from point of keel through skin and ribs to the 
shoulder. By cutting through the caracoids with the tin-shears 
the breast can be removed. Now make a longitudinal cut from 
point of keel to vent, cutting through skin and muscle, being 
careful not to cut the intestines. Spread the skin outward 
and tack to the board on each side. A full view is now given 
of the viscera, with no feathers to interfere in the examination. 
Abnormal conditions may appear at first view, but a critical 
examination should be made of all the organs. Note the heart. 
Is it enlarged, or the pericardium filled with liquid? Examine 
the liver. Are there any spots or discoloration? Is the liver 
enlarged or is it shrunken? Note the intestines, whether they 
are inflamed or discolored or enlarged. Examine the kidneys 
lying in the sacral region. So also, other organs and systems 
should receive careful study. If worms are suspected it will 
be advisable to remove the digestive tract and place it upon 
a clean sheet of paper. It can then be slit from cloaca to 
proventriculus. 

Now, with the facts at hand, both of external symptoms and 
internal conditions, it will be possible to make a reasonably 
accurate diagnosis. 

After the diagnosis, what? The remedy must be deter- 
mined and applied. Some assistance along this line can be 
obtained from Chapter XIV. If a more exhaustive study is 
desired there are valuable books on poultry diseases, such as 
those of "Blair," "Dr. Salmon," and "Pearl, Surface, and 
Curtis" which can be secured from any poultry journal com- 
pany. The following list contains remedies that will be useful 
for all kinds of livestock and many of them are valuable for 
family use. 

Poultry Remedies 

Epsom Salts, MgS0 4 . — There is no more valuable drug for 
the poultry farm than Epsom Salts. It is indicated in liver dis- 
eases, rheumatism, gout and many intestinal affections. One- 
half to one teaspoonful to a fowl, either in mash or water or 
one pound to 100 hens in mash or water are suitable doses. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Copperas, Iron Sulphate or FeS0 4 , is a blood tonic and a 
good germicide, hence its use is indicated in contagious and 
infectious diseases. One teaspoonful to 100 hens in drinking 
water is advised. 

Castor Oil. — This is useful for affections of the alimentary 
tract. It can be given with medicine dropper, or in warm milk 
by drenching. 

Bi-carbonate of Soda, Na 2 CO a . — It is useful in cases of fer- 
mentation in crop or intestines. Dose : One-half teaspoonful in 
a quart of water. 

Quinine. — A good remedy for colds and cases of chicken pox 
and roup. It is a good tonic. Dose: A one-grain capsule to 
an adult fowl. 

Calomel is recommended for liver diseases and constipa- 
tion. Dose : One-fourth grain to the adult fowl. 

Nux Vomica is a remedy for leg weakness and indigestion. 
Five drops in a pint of water is the recommended dose. 

Turpentine: — This remedy is good for colds, rattling in the 
throat, intestinal worms, and it acts on the kidneys. It should 
be given with sweet oil, one part turpentine to five of sweet 
oil, one teaspoonful of mixture constituting the dose for a fowl. 

Carbolated Vaseline is useful as an ointment in cases of 
colds, roup, chicken pox, sore eyes, scaly leg and frozen combs. 

Permanganate of Potash, KMn0 4 , is a valuable disinfectant 
and germicide. Its use is indicated in any contagious disease. 
A saturated solution should be made in a large bottle. Crystals 
should be added until the water has dissolved all that it will 
hold, so that crystals still remain in the bottom of the bottle. 
From this stock solution the daily supply of water for the flock 
can be prepared by adding enough of the solution to turn the 
water a deep red. 

Sulfur is useful in preparing ointment, as a remedy for 
worms, and as a germicide. Sulfur ointment is prepared by 
adding one teaspoonful of sulfur to one-half teacupful of vase- 
line or lard. 

Strychnine in one-thirtieth grain doses is a stimulant and 
tonic and is indicated in cases of asthenia and debility. 

Mustard. — This is very useful as a tonic. It stimulates and 
tones up the digestive and reproductive organs and promotes 
the health of the flock. The dose is one heaping teaspoonful 
for six hens, or about one tablespoonful for 10 hens. It is 
usually fed in a moist mash. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Iodine. — Tincture of iodine is used to prevent and de- 
stroy infection. For internal use it is recommended in cases of 
aspergillosis and tuberculosis. Dose, two drops to adult fowl. 

Iodoform. — A powerful germicide, used as a powder on 
abraded surfaces and in preparing an ointment, which is rec- 
ommended in cases of diphtheria, vent gleet, favus and chicken 
pox. 

Unguentine. — This ointment allays pain and is very healing. 
It is recommended for burns, abrasions and all exposed sur- 
faces. It can be obtained of any druggist in collapsible tubes. 

Disinfectants and Germicides 

A disinfectant is any substance that destroys any infectious 
or contagious matter. The difference between infectious and 
contagious is only one of degree. A disease is said to be in- 
fectious when it is communicated through food or drink or by 
direct contact with the infectious material. Tuberculosis, bac- 
terial enteritis, aspergillosis, coccidiosis, black head, and vent 
gleet are infectious diseases. 

A contagious disease is of a more virulent nature and is 
communicated not only through food and water but through 
the air. Cholera, roup, chicken pox, diphtheria, and favus are 
contagious diseases. 

A germicide is any agent that destroys disease germs, 
such as bacteria, spores of fungi and animal parasites. For- 
maldehyde, carbolic acid and creolin are germicides. 

Valuable Disinfectants 

Copperas. — A strong solution of copperas is one of the best 
of disinfectants. It removes foul and musty odors from build- 
ings and grounds and is harmless to the flock. It should be 
sprinkled on the floor every time the building is cleaned. 

Slaked Lime. — This should be used often to sprinkle on 
the drop boards and in damp and musty places. It is one of 
the best substances to use in disinfecting the ground. It should 
be scattered on the ground when any contagious disease is 
present, and when gape worms attack the young chicks it 
should be scattered freely over their runs and, after the ground 
is plowed or spaded, another coat should be applied. 

Lime Wash. — This is made by slaking a peck of lime with 
a little boiling water, just enough to keep it covered. When the 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

process of slaking is completed, add enough water to make a 
thin paste. Strain this through a fine sieve to remove any 
lumps or foreign particles and then add a solution of four 
quarts of salt in hot water. When ready to use the mixture 
add hot water to bring it to the proper consistency. The dis- 
infecting power is increased by adding one pint of carbolic 
acid to five gallons of wash. It may be applied with a brush or 
with a spray pump. 

Crude Carbolic Acid. — A good disinfecting solution is rec- 
ommended as follows : — Use one pint of crude carbolic acid, 
one pound of laundry soap, and one gallon of kerosene. The 
soap is first dissolved in a gallon of boiling water and then the 
kerosene and carbolic acid are added. When ready to spray, 
add water equal to the mixture. 

Creolin is a good germicide. Add a sufficient quantity, about 
two per cent, to the amount of hot water required, and then 
use as a spray or wash. It can be used to wash out incubators 
and brooders. As it is more powerful than carbolic acid the 
quantity required will be very small. 

Formalin. — This is a 40 per cent solution of formaldehyde 
gas. A five per cent solution of formalin is used to spray the 
interior of buildings, incubators, coops, etc. After, the spray 
is applied, the room or incubator is closed as nearly air tight as 
possible. When incubators are disinfected they should be 
allowed to air and dry out before putting in the eggs. This is 
to avoid any possible injury to the chick germs by the disin- 
fectant. 

A good stock dip makes an effective disinfectant. Zeno- 
leum is one of the best. 

Parasites and Enemies 

Enemies and parasites of the farm flock are found in the 
soil, in the air, in the water and in the food. If there is a 
creature that has more guerrillas on its trail than a chicken I 
have not been advised. 

Bacteria are too small to be seen by the naked eye but 
accumulate in such vast numbers that they are a constant 
menace to health. There are upwards of 100,000 bacteria in a 
cubic centimeter of virgin soil; ordinary milk contains 20,000 
to a cubic centimeter; and it is estimated that in a milligram 
of fecal matter from a fowl there are upwards of 30,000,000 
of these micro-organisms. This gives us some idea of the' 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

vast numbers of bacteria that form a part of the invisible world 
of living organisms. Many of these are pathogenic and only 
await an opportunity to prey upon the body. Fortunately for 
the chicken there are many "anti-bodies," or agents that prey 
upon disease germs, so that a fowl in vigorous health is able 
to escape infection. Such are the hydrochloric acid of the 
gastric juice which acts as a germicide; the serum of the blood 
which is also germicidal; the white blood corpuscles which at- 
tack and destroy disease germs, the liver cells and other cells 
of the body which engage in constant warfare to protect the 
body. This explains why healthy fowls are often able to resist 
an epidemic of disease, while the weaker ones succumb. 

Lice. — The common poultry louse, Menopon pallidum, at- 
tacks all parts of the fowl's body. It can be seen moving 
rapidly among the feathers. Unlike the mite it lives by biting 
rather than by sucking. It remains and breeds upon the fowl's 
body, and often clusters of eggs can be seen in the region of 
the vent. It causes loss of vigor and emaciation. Probably 
the best treatment is the sodium fluorid powder recommended 
by the government. A pinch of the powder, such as can be 
seized between the thumb and forefinger, is applied to the 
feathers next the skin on the head, neck, back, under wings and 
at base of tail. The amount should be limited to about 10 
small pinches, as it is irritating if used too freely. It should 
not be used with sitting hens. One pound will treat a flock of 
100 hens and effectually destroy all the lice. Other methods of 
destroying lice are to dust insect powder among the feathers, 
using an ointment, such as blue ointment, and by dipping. 

If chicks are infested with head lice a good application is 
sweet oil, which is effective and harmless unless used in too 
great a quantity. 

Red Mite, Dermannyssus gallinae. — The color of the 
common mite is gray but becomes red after feeding upon the 
blood of a fowl. They attack their victim at night. In the 
daytime they are secreted in cracks and other hiding places 
where they breed. Knowing their habits it is not a difficult mat- 
ter to get rid of them. Crude petroleum or processed oil applied 
to the roosts, nests, and in all cracks and crevices will do the 
work. A good spray is effective, but should be repeated. 

Mites are serious pests. On account of their small size they 
are often overlooked until great damage has been done. If 
roosts are supported as recommended in Chapter X the pests 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

will not be likely to make their attacks, because unable to reach 
the roosts. 

Depluming Mite, Sarcoptes laevis gallinae. — This attacks 
the skin at the base of the feathers producing an intense itch- 
ing, which causes the fowls to pull out their feathers. Apply 
an ointment to the parts affected consisting of one part sulfur 
and four parts vaseline. 




A bad case of scaly leg 



Scaly-leg Mite, Sarcoptes mutans. — This parasite works 
under the scales of the toes and shanks, filling the spaces with 
a powdery substance which causes the scales to be raised, giv- 
ing the roughened appearance so characteristic of the disease. 
The mites can be killed and the disease cured by dipping feet 
and shanks in crude petroleum, or processed oil, or a mixture 
of four parts of raw linseed oil and one part of kerosene. 

Other pests such as bedbugs, chiggers, ticks, and fleas are 
at times very annoying and in some sections their infestations 
are very serious. 

Air-sac Mite, Cytodites nudus. — This mite infests the air 
sacs, occasionally in such numbers as to produce emaciation 
and anemia. There appear to be no effective means of ridding 
a flock of this pest. The free use of sulfur is advised. Any 
substance inhaled into the air sacs sufficiently strong to destroy 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

the mite would probably injure the fowl. If the whole flock is 
affected it would be best to dispose of them and put the new 
stock on fresh ground. 



Worms 

Many species of round worms and tape worms infest the 
alimentary tract producing a variety of serious diseases, such 
as anemia, emaciation, epilepsy, enteritis, toxic poisoning and 
indigestion. Worms lay the foundation for a long train of 
diseases by destroying the resisting power of the fowl so that 




Wry neck 

it becomes an easy prey to bacteria and other disease germs. 
Santonin and male fern are usually recommended as remedies 
for worms, but they are expensive. The remedies recom- 
mended in Chapter XIV will be found effective and far less 
expensive. They are tobacco, salts-sulfur-copperas, and gaso- 
line methods. 



Major Enemies 

The following list is by no means complete. Only the 
more common ones are named. 

Cats. — It is possible to train a cat so that it will not harm 
small chicks. It should be fed regularly. When the first brood 
comes off place the cat near and watch. If there is any effort 
to destroy one of the chicks she should be caught and punished 
severely. She will probably give no further trouble. Cats are 
sly and cannot be trusted unless well fed and carefully trained. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Dogs. — They must be trained like cats. They are often very 
destructive to flocks of turkeys. Only good dogs should be kept. 

Hogs. — There is nothing more aggravating than a chicken- 
eating hog. Its example is soon followed and the whole herd 
becomes like a pack of wolves. Lock them up in chicken-proof 
pens and remove the flock as far away as possible. 

Minks are very cunning. If they can find a hiding place on 
the premises they will remain for weeks, each night destroying 
one or more fowls. The fowl is caught behind the head, the 
blood is sucked, and then the body is dragged away and the 
flesh consumed, or at least a portion of it. When a mink appears 
a search should be made. Better use a shot gun than to allow 
it to escape. If once discovered and frightened it will probably 
leave the premises. 

Weasels are destructive of young chicks, destroying a score 
or more in a single night and carrying their bodies to some 
place of concealment. Coops should be made vermin-proof and 
always closed at night. 

Skunks destroy eggs and sometimes attack chicks or fowls. 
Their nests should be sought and raided. 

Rats. — Rats are undoubtedly the most destructive of all 
poultry pests. They consume and contaminate the feed, they 
destroy eggs and young chicks, they carry disease from farm to 
farm and from flock to flock, and they damage buildings and 
equipment. A pest that destroys property value to the amount 
of $200,000,000 annually and requires the constant labor of 
300,000 farmers to supply it with food should have some atten- 
tion from our lawmakers. We have a good law which provides 
for the eradication of the Canada thistle, and legislation en- 
couraging a warfare upon the symptoms of human tuberculosis, 
and have summoned the nations to discuss the limitation of 
armaments that war may hide its deformed head for at least 
ten years, and yet here is a pest that is more destructive than 
any noxious weed, that is responsible for the spread of tuber- 
culosis to a large extent, and that has caused the loss of more 
lives than all the wars of history, but it is allowed to go un- 
scathed, tolerated by governments and ignored by legislators. 

An impatient and long suffering electorate will some day 
insist that legal measures shall be adopted to protect the masses 
of the people from this scourge. 

There is some risk in using poison to destroy rats. If put 
out in the evening all the remnants should be gathered up 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

early the following morning and destroyed to avoid danger of 
poisoning domestic animals. 

Traps are helpful but large numbers should be used. Woven 
wire traps are sometimes successful. A correspondent from 
southern Illinois reports that he captured 300 rats during a 
single summer by this method. The trap was baited and left 
open until the rats became accustomed to conditions. Then 
it was closed and a vessel of milk placed inside. Rats are fond 
of milk and in a dry season can be easily enticed into the trap. 
A board or sack placed over the trap helps matters. 

A well trained ferret will drive out the rats from a farm. 
A good rat dog will be a valuable help. A campaign of rat 
extermination on the farm will mean the saving of many dol- 
lars. Buildings should be made rat-proof. Remove the harbors 
and the rats will disappear. 

Hawks destroy large numbers of chickens and turkeys an- 
nually. The Goshawk, Prairie Falcon, Marsh Hawk, Sharp- 
shinned Hawk and the Sparrow Hawk are some of the more 
common varieties. The shot gun seems to be the best remedy. 

Crows destroy eggs and young chickens and turkeys. They 
are difficult to capture, but if one can be shot and hung up in 
a prominent place near the poultry buildings there will prob- 
ably be no further depredations from this source. 

English Sparrows are pests without one redeeming quality. 
They consume and contaminate poultry feed. They are the 
carriers of disease. They destroy the eggs and young of native 
birds. On account of their rapid multiplication they are becom- 
ing a menace to the farm. Sparrow traps are advised for their 
destruction. 



[174] 



Chapter XIV 

Diseases and Remedies 

We have come to one of the most vital subjects pertaining 
to the poultry industry. The six important factors in the 
maintenance of a healthy flock are isolation, sanitation, disin- 
fection, cremation, diagnosis, and application of suitable reme- 
dies. The first three of these items have been discussed in 
Chapter XIII. The remaining items are considered in this 
chapter. 

Cremation 

All dead animals on the farm should be cremated as soon 
as possible. If allowed to remain where other animals can gain 
access to them it will result in spreading of disease. Dead 
fowls can be thrown into the stove, or burned upon a fire in 
the open made of cobs or old wood, or they can be consumed 
in a crematory. A common method of making a crematory 
is as follows : Make a solid foundation of concrete. Upon this 
there is built a fire box having an inside measurement of one 
and one-half feet wide by two feet and sixteen inches deep. 
Across the top of the fire box iron grating, or old wagon tires 
or iron rods, one inch in diameter, should be laid about one 
inch apart. Above this is built an oven of brick laid in cement. 
This should be about 14 inches deep. A cover of galvanized 
iron is made for the top. This should have a handle in the 
middle and a flue opening at one end. In front of the fire-box 
should be an opening to admit fuel and remove ashes,. 

Burying dead animals is not always satisfactory. If that 
practice is followed dead fowls should be buried in places 
removed from the buildings and about three feet deep. 

Diagnosis and Treatment 

In the following discussion of diseases an effort has been 
made to give very briefly the cause, symptoms and treatment 
of the more common affections. It is hoped that they are suffi- 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

ciently full to aid the reader in determining the character of 
some of the diseases which affect the flock as well as the appro- 
priate remedy to use. 

I. — Affections caused by accidents: 

1. — By external accidents: 

Bruise or puncture of ball of foot Bumble foot 178 

Broken bone Fracture 178 

Torn skin Tear 178 

Bruise with pus formation Abscess 178 

2. — Internal accidents: 

Rupture of blood vessel on brain Apoplexy 178 

Broken egg in oviduct or cloaca Broken egg 178 

Eversion of oviduct Prolapsus 179 

Compacted crop Crop bound 179 

Retention of egg Egg bound 179 

Obstructions in pharynx or cloaca Obstructions 179 

Cleavage of heart, kidneys, oviduct Rupture 179 

II. — Affections arising from abnormalities: 
1. — Abnormal development: 

Tail twisted to one side Wry tail. 179 

Back deformed Crooked back 180 

Breast bone bent or twisted Crooked keel 180 

Mandibles crossed or uneven in length . . . Deformed beak 180 

Sprigs on side of comb Side sprigs 180 

Abnormal size of liver, heart, etc Hypertrophy 180 

Liquid in heart, abdomen, etc Dropsy 180 

Wasting or decrease in size of liver Atrophy 180 

2: — Abnormal growths: 

Growth of dormant embryonic cells Tumors 180 

Tumors of skin and mucous membranes. .Cancers 181 

Calloused growth on ball of foot Corns 181 

III. — Affections caused by climatic conditions: 

Heat prostration Sunstroke 182 

Freezing of comb or wattles Frosted comb 182 

Freezing of feet Frosted feet 182 

IV. — Affections caused by improper sanitation and exposure: 

Common colds Catarrh 182 

Hard crust in mouth Pip 182 

Inflamation of trachea or bronchi Bronchitis 182 

Lungs inflamed and filled with blood Congestion of lungs 182 

Congestion of brain Vertigo 183 

Inflamation of pericardium Pericarditis 183 

Lameness and swelling of joints Rheumatism 183 

V. — Affections caused by poisons: 

Poisoning from decayed food Ptomaine poisoning 183 

Poisoning from eating maggots Limberneck 183 

From eating an excess of salt Salt poisoning 183 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

From eating copper sulphate Copper poisoning 184 

From eating arsenic Arsenic poisoning 183 

From eating paint skins Lead poisoning 184 

From eating rye Ergot poisoning 184 

VI. — Affections caused by improper feeds and feeding and malnutrition: 

Failure in assimilation Malnutrition 184 

Going light from infection or malnutrition. Asthenia 184 

Lack of nutrients in food Sore eyes 184 

Lack of protein and vitamines.. Beri-beri 185 

Inflation of crop Crop fermentation 185 

Excess of one kind of food Gout 185 

Swelling of joints Articular gout 185 

White deposit on viscera Visceral gout 185 

Failure in digestion Indigestion 185 

Intestines plugged with fecal matter Constipation 185 

Looseness of bowels Simple diarrhea 185 

Inflamation of proventriculus Gastritis 185 

Inflamation of liver Hepatitis 185 

Excess of bile Jaundice 186 

Enlargement of liver Hypertrophy 185 

Fatty disease of liver Fatty degeneration of liver 186 

Overfeeding of chicks Leg weakness 186 

Excessive fat or diseased oviduct Soft shelled eggs 186 

VII. — Affections caused by parasites: 

i. — By animal parasites: 
(i) By external animal parasites: - 

By lice ; Emaciation 170 

By Red Mite Anemia. . 170 

By depluming mite Feather pulling 171 

Scaly-leg mite Scaly-leg 171 

(2) By internal animal parasites 

Air-sac mite in air sacs Suffocation 171 

Round worms in alimentary tract Emaciation 186 

Tape worms in lower intestine Epilepsy 187 

By amoebae attacking liver & ceca Blackhead 187 

By coccidia attacking liver & ceca Coccidiosis 187 

Ceca plugged, yellow diarrhea Coccidial diarrhea 188 

Worms in windpipe Gapes 188 

2. — By vegetable parasites: 

(1) By external vegetable parasites: 

Comb and face with white powdery scurf White-comb 189 

Comb and face with white patches Favus. 189 

Warty sores on head Chicken Pox 189 

(2) By internal vegetable parasites : 

Fungus attacking air passages Aspergillosis 190 

Aspergillus attacking young chicks Brooder pneumonia 190 

Swollen eyes, offensive discharge Roup 190 

Growth of false membrane in mouth Diphtheria 191 

Inflamation of bronchi, contagious Influenza 191 

Fungus growth in oesophagus Thrush 191 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Rapid respiration, clotted serum Pneumonia 191 

Emaciation, tubercles on liver, etc Tuberculosis 191 

Blood pale, heart with gray points Infectious Leukaemia 192 

Fowls sleepy, eyes swollen Sleeping disease 192 

White diarrhea, offensive odor Vent gleet 192 

Whitish discharge, pasting up behind, 

drowsiness, swollen abdomen Bacillary White Diarrhea. . 192 

Inflamation of small intestine Bacterial Enteritis 193 

Inflamation of large intestine Dysentery 193 

Diarrhea, first yellow then bright green. . . Cholera 193 



Causes, Diagnosis and Treatment of Poultry Diseases 

I. Affections caused by accidents. 

Bumble Foot is caused by a bruise on ball of foot or puncture and 
infection. 

Symptoms: Lameness, swelling of foot, infection. 

Treatment: Lance the swelling, wash out with one per cent of creolin 
or paint with iodine, anoint with carbolated vaseline, cover with ster- 
ilized cotton and bind with surgeon's linen or with adhesive tape. Keep 
fowl in clean place. 

Broken bones are the result of accident. If a clean fracture, set the 
bone, wrap with a layer of cotton, apply thin splints, bind in place with 
adhesive tape. A cure will be effected in three weeks. 

Tears, or rents, are also accidental. Pluck feathers from around the 
sore, wash with one per cent creolin solution, then sew up rent with 
silk thread that has been saturated in alcohol. Apply unguentine oint- 
ment to all surface sores, burns, etc. 

Abscesses occur from bruises or infection. Lance and wash out with 
a one per cent of creolin, then apply tincture of iodine to edges of sore 
or sprinkle with iodoform or apply unguentine ointment. 



II. Internal accidents 

Apoplexy is caused by a rupture of a blood vessel in brain; is some- 
times due to excessive fat, or to fright, or to strain in the act of laying. 
It occurs more frequently with hens than with males. 

Symptoms: Fowl falls from roost or dies on nest. Death is sudden 
without premonitory symptoms. 

Treatment: Compel exercise, feed less, give Epsom salts occasion- 
ally to whole flock. 

Broken Egg. Occasionally an egg becomes broken in cloaca or 
oviduct. This may be due to treading of male or striking an object in 
flying from perch. 

Symptoms: Straining and bloody discharges. 

Treatment: If in cloaca, remove with finger and swab with un- 
guentine ointment or olive oil. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Egg Bound is retention of the egg; may be due to excessive fat or 
constipation or to excessive size of egg. 

Symptoms: Straining, hen goes frequently to nest without laying. 

Treatment: Apply hot bandages, inject olive oil into cloaca, use 
gentle pressure in dislodging the egg. 

Prolapsus is caused by the straining used to expel a large egg; some- 
times causes an eversion of the oviduct. This is called prolapsus. 
Symptoms: Straining and protrusion of the oviduct. 
Treatment: Apply hot bandages and olive oil. 

Crop Bound is caused by an obstruction in the outlet of the crop or 
by a paralysis of the muscular walls of the crop due to impaction. 

Symptoms: Distended crop, difficulty in swallowing, drowsiness, 
pale comb. 

Treatment: Give a tablespoonful of sweet oil, massage the contents 
and force as much as possible out through the mouth. In removing 
the contents by an operation, the incision should be made on upper 
side of crop. Sew crop membrane and skin separately in closing up 
the opening. 

Obstruction of the pharynx is caused by growths or masses of food 
which can be removed if discovered in time. 

Obstruction of the cloaca is generally due to constipation or an 
egg-bound condition. An injection of olive oil will give relief. 

Internal ruptures, as of the heart, blood vessels, oviduct or kidneys, 
may be due to an excess of blood with high pressure, to a very large 
egg in oviduct, or to an accumulation of urates in the kidneys. 

Symptoms: Weakness, drowsiness, death. 

Treatment: Avoid overfeeding. Feed a balanced ration. 

II. Affections arising from abnormalities 
1. — Abnormal development 

Wry tail. Cause: Probably inherited, though it may be due occa- 
sionally to the cramped position of the tail in coops or roosting places. 
Counted as a disqualification. 





MALEfi WITH DEFECTIVE- TAIL CA2R1A6E 

1. pqUIRMEL. Z. YfRY 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Symptom: Tail twisted or carried to one side. 

Treatment: If a natural deformity there is no cure. Birds should 
be kept in roomy quarters with roosts removed from the wall. 

Crooked Back. Cause: Probably inherited in most cases, though 
some cases may arise from crowding in coops. 

Symptom: The bird appears as a hunchback. 

Treatment: No cure and such specimens should not be used for 
breeding. 

Crooked Keel. Cause: Improper feeding of chicks, malnutrition, 
inherited. 

Symptoms: Keel bent, twisted or curved. The rocker keel is not a 
deformity, but indicates large capacity, therefore good fecundity. 

Treatment: No cure, a disqualification. Chicks should be supplied 
with bone-forming material. 

Deformed Beak is probably due to some accident or unfavorable 
environment preventing the proper development of this structure. 

Symptoms: The mandibles may be crossed or one mandible is 
shorter than the other. 

Treatment: There is no cure for crossed mandibles, but when they 
are of uneven length, the longer one can be trimmed to some extent 
so as to make possible the seizing of food. 

Sidesprigs occur on the sides of single combs and are creatures of 
heredity. 

Symptoms: They may occur on the sides of blade or upon the 
points. 

Treatment: They disqualify and should never be removed. 

Hypertrophy is the undue enlargement of any organ, such as the 
liver, spleen, kidney or heart, and may be due to any one of several 
causes. The more common causes are overfeeding, lack of exercise, 
malnutrition and bacterial infection. 

Dropsy is an accumulation of liquid, serum or water, in heart or 
abdomen. Dropsy of abdomen is caused by unsanitary conditions and 
improper feeding; dropsy of the pericardium is associated with other 
diseases and is probably caused by them. 

Symptoms: Sluggishness, rapid heart beat. Dropsy of abdomen 
can be detected by its swollen condition and it is soft to the touch. 

Treatment: Puncture the skin to remove the liquid and then give 
a good tonic, nux vomica, strychnine, or tonic No. 1. 

Atrophy is wasting of the tissues of any organ, due to pressure from 
excessive fat, or the result of inflammation. * Atrophy of the ovary and 
testes occur as the result of age. Such birds should be conditioned 
for market. 

Treatment: Epsom salts may be helpful in early stages. A strong 
stimulant, such as mustard, would be helpful. 

2. — Abnormal growths 
A tumor is a new growth of tissue believed to be caused by the 
development of dormant or unused embryonic cells. They begin to 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

develop under a given stimulus, which may be bacterial in character 
or the result of some injury. They seem to affect organs of the body 
which become inactive by reason of age, so that they seldom occur in 
fowls under one year of age. The Maine Experiment Station reports 
about nine per cent of cases of tumor in all autopsies made. The ovary 
is more commonly affected than any other organ. 

Symptoms: Tumors may be benign or malignant. A benign tumor 
is usually enclosed in a capsule and is harmless because it does not 
penetrate surrounding tissues. A benign fatty tumor is an illustration. 
Malignant tumors penetrate the tissues and if removed reappear. They 
sometimes spread from one organ to another. These tumors attack a 
number of the tissues of the body. 

Symptoms: The fowl becomes sluggish, appetite is poor, and there 
is emaciation in some cases. 

Treatment: The real cause and cure are unknown. 

Cancers. Tumors of the epithelial and mucous membrane type are 
known as cancers. A cancer which involves the squamous epithelial 
cells of the skin is known as epithelioma. Other types attack the pro- 
ventriculus, gizzard, intestines, liver, spleen and ovary. 

Treatment: Kill and cremate the diseased fowl for there is no known 



Internal Abscesses are in most cases probably due to infection. 
If the cause is removed there may be some cases of recovery. 

Corns usually result from bruises and may be caused by narrow 
perches. 




Normal ovary on left. Ovary from hen infected with bacterium pullanum on right 



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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Symptoms: Lameness, ball of foot calloused. 

Treatment: As far as possible, without bleeding, remove the corn 
with sharp knife. Apply tincture of iodine. Make the roosts broad 
and flat. 

III. Affections due to climatic conditions 

Sunstroke, or heat prostration, is not uncommon during the extreme 
heat of summer. It may be due to insufficient shade, lack of water or 
to hot, ill-ventilated buildings. 

Symptom: The fowl falls as if paralyzed. 

Treatment: Apply cold water to head, which may be beneficial in 
mild cases. 

Frosted comb and feet. Fowls that roost in the open in rigorous 
climates are often affected with frozen combs or feet. Lack of ventila- 
tion in roosting quarters and access to free range in below-zero weather 
are common causes. Fowls should be confined in severely cold weather. 

Symptoms: Parts are stiff and swollen. 

Treatment: Hold affected parts in cold water until the frost is 
removed. Apply carbolated vaseline to which have been added a few 
drops of turpentine. Application should be made several times. 

IV. Affections caused by improper sanitation and exposure 

Common colds or catarrh arise from overcrowding at night, and 
subsequent exposure to drafts. A draft on the side of the head affects 
the eye and results in inflammation and subsequent infection. 

Symptoms: An offensive roupy odor, swelling of eye, discharge from 
nostrils, matted feathers under wing. 

Treatment: Provide ventilation without drafts and transfer young 
chicks from coops to permanent roosting quarters, early in the fall. 
Use a spray and force permanganate of potash into the slit in the roof of 
the mouth and give permanganate of potash in drinking water. Remove 
sick birds to comfortable quarters and give each a one-grain capsule of 
quinine. 

Pip is the hardening of the mucous membrane of mouth and tip of 
tongue, caused by inflammation or mouth breathing when nostrils are 
closed by colds. 

Symptoms: Difficulty in breathing and eating. 

Treatment: Open the nostrils and apply glycerine or carbolated 
vaseline to the hard growth in the mouth. 

Bronchitis. Causes: A drafty building, irritating gases, dusty litter. 

Symptoms: Difficult breathing. Mucus forms, and young chicks 
are often strangled; drowsiness; drooping wings; ruffled feathers. 

Treatment: Isolate sick birds. Doctor Salmon recommends 10 
drops of turpentine in a teaspoonful of castor oil. Repeat the dose for 
several days. One-fourth of this dose is sufficient for chicks. Avoid 
dusty litter and irritating vapors. 

Congestion of Lungs. Cause: Chilling the surface of the body. 
Symptoms: Distension of blood vessels in lungs and closing of air 
spaces; drowsiness; rapid breathing; dark red or bluish black comb. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Treatment: Disease generally fatal. There is no remedy. Put birds 
in comfortable quarters and give a good tonic. 

Congestion of Brain — Vertigo. Causes: Fright, excitement, blow 
on head, intestinal worms, indigestion. 

Symptoms: There is a rush of blood to brain, fowl staggers, moves 
in a circle, walks backward and turns the head backward. 

Treatment: Give teaspoonful of Epsom salts in water. Remove the 
cause. 

Pericarditis. Cause: Exposure to cold and dampness. 

Symptoms: Inflammation accompanied with dropsy of the heart sac; 
weakness and difficult breathing. 

Treatment: Remove causes and give four grains of carbonate of 
soda. Endocarditis is an inflammation of the inner membrane of the 
heart and should have similar treatment. 

Rheumatism- Cause: Dampness and cold drafts. 
Symptoms: Lameness, swellings and inflammation of joints. 
Treatment: Remove affected birds to dry room with board floor. 
Correct conditions in poultry house. 

V. Affections caused by poisons 

Ptomaine Poisoning. Cause: Eating decayed animal or vegetable 
food. 

Symptoms: Lack of control of the muscles. Comb becomes black, 
occasional diarrhea; prostration and limber neck; head turning toward 
breast. 

Treatment: A teaspoonful of castor oil in warm milk; or a level 
teaspoonful of Epsom salts in water. Follow with tonic found in formula 
No. 1. 

Limberneck. Cause: Eating the maggots of the green bottle fly, 
Lucilius Caesar; probably also caused by eating decayed matter and the 
flesh of fowls that have died of the disease. It is also associated with 
intestinal worms. 

Symptoms: This is not a contagious disease, but is considered a 
symptom of other diseases. Head hung down between feet, and there 
are convulsions in which the neck is twisted in different positions. 
When the head is turned backward and twisted and lies upon the back 
the affection is called wry-neck. 

Treatment: Blair recommends giving equal parts of oil of tur- 
pentine and sweet oil, one teaspoonful at dose. Follow this in a half 
hour with all the sweet milk the fowl can drink. Pure lard, a table- 
spoonful melted and poured down the throat, will sometimes effect a 
cure. 

Salt Poisoning. Salt is a valuable food. Used in excess it is a fatal 
poison. Convulsions, prostration, and diarrhea are symptoms. Milk 
is indicated as a remedy. 

Arsenic Poisoning. Fowls contract arsenic poisoning accidentally 
from rat poisons and arsenical sprays. The symptoms are choking, 
excessive secretion of saliva, difficult breathing, unsteady walk, con- 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

vulsions. Milk, white of egg, flaxseed, or sulphate of iron are recom- 
mended as antidotes. 

Copper poisoning results from careless disposal of spray mixtures 
containing copper sulphate. The symptoms are diarrhea of blue or 
green color, prostration, convulsions, paralysis. Milk and white of egg 
are antidotes. 

Lead and zinc poisoning resembles copper poisoning in symptoms. 
Sulphate of soda is recommended as an antidote. 

Ergot poisoning occurs in feeding rye as a sole ration. The ergot 
of rye is a serious poison and the symptoms are trembling, prostration, 
and gangrene of comb and tongue. 

Quinine in one-grain capsules should be given daily. I have known 
large flocks to be lost by this affection. The ergot is produced by a 
fungus which infests the rye. This grain should not be fed to chickens. 

VI. Affections caused by improper feeds and feeding and 
malnutrition 

Malnutrition is a failure in digestion and assimilation, so that the 
fowl does not flourish. It may be due to weakness and failure of the 
organs of digestion and assimilation, so that they do not function 
properly, or it may be due to dietary deficiency. Weakness, emaciation 
and loss of appetite are the symptoms. A. balanced ration should be 
provided and a tonic to stimulate the digestive organs. Use formula 
No. 1. 

Asthenia is known as "going light" and is the result of dietary 
deficiency or malnutrition, and is often produced by a specific germ. 
It occurs in flocks where young stock is kept with older fowls in 
crowded quarters. Those that fail to get adequate food become 
emaciated. The symptoms are voracious appetite, increasing emacia- 
tion, inflammation of the intestines, and constipation. Affected birds 
should be isolated and given food rich in nutrients and a good tonic. 

Sore eyes arise from several causes. They may be a symptom of 
one of several diseases, such as colds, roup, chicken pox, diphtheria and 
favus. There seems to be an infectious disease of the eyes not asso- 
ciated with other diseases. The eyelids become glued together and 
there is an accumulation of pus in the eye. Another cause of eye 
trouble is the irritation caused by the use of insecticides or liquid lice 
killers. Still another cause is dietary deficiency. The food lacks in 
vitamines, or growth principles, and sore eyes is a symptom. Some- 
times the eye breaks down and sloughs away. 

All affected chicks or fowls should be isolated promptly and kept 
in dry comfortable quarters. Open the eyelids and remove any accu- 
mulation. Wash the eyes with a weak, tepid solution of creolin and 
apply unguentine ointment which can be secured of any druggist in 
collapsible tubes. Use permanganate of potash in drinking water and 
feed a balanced ration with an abundance of green feed 

Beri-beri manifests itself in paralysis of the legs, and can be pro- 
duced by feeding polished rice, or any diet deficient in Water Soluble B. 
Another name of the disease is polyneuritis. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Treatment: Feed a balanced ration, and give the tonic recommended 
in formula No. 2. Give an abundance of green feed. 

Crop Inflation. Sometimes the crop becomes inflated with gas, the 
result of bacterial fermentation. A disinfectant, such as permanganate 
of potash in drinking water, or a few drops of creolin in a quart of water 
will give relief. 

Gout is a kidney disease resulting from failure to eliminate the 
urates. There are two varieties, visceral and articular. 

Visceral Gout. Cause: An excess of one kind of food, especially 
a food rich in protein, such as tankage or corn. Dampness favors its 
development. 

Symptoms: Lameness. Visceral organs covered with white, chalky 
deposit, emaciation, but good appetite. 

Treatment: Give more variety in food and Epsom salts in mash or 
drinking water. One pound to 100 fowls. 

Articular Gout. Cause: Dampness. Lack of balanced ration. A 
diet too rich in proteids. 

Symptoms: Lameness, swelling of joints in toes, diarrhea in ad- 
vanced stages. 

Treatment: Remove birds to dry comfortable quarters with board 
floor. Give teaspoonful of Epsom salts every third day. 

Indigestion is caused by lack of balanced ration, unsanitary con- 
ditions, lack of green food. 

Symptoms; Dullness, loss of appetite, diarrhea. 

Treatment: Give Epsom salts, one pound to 100 fowls. Follow with 
a good tonic. 

Constipation. Cause: It may follow enteritis, or may be due to the 
character of the ration. 

Symptoms: A dry condition of intestinal tract, and hard dry fecal 
matter, obstructing free evacuation, dullness, straining. 

Treatment: Give level teaspoonful of Epsom salts, remove obstruc- 
tion in cloaca, give injection of sweet oil and glycerine. Moist mashes 
and green feed are recommended. 

Diarrhea. Cause: It sometimes accompanies indigestion, and is due 
to overfeeding. 

Symptoms: Impacted crop, dullness, excrement whitish, yellowish 
or greenish, and often watery. 

Treatment: One tablespoonful of castor oil to each affected fowl. 
A small crystal of sulphate of iron in drinking water. 

Gastritis, or Inflammation of Proventriculus. Cause: This disease 
is determined by the kind, quality and quantity of the food. 

Symptoms: Inflammation of the proventriculus, dullness, loss of 
appetite, roughness of feathers and constipation. 

Treatment: Give Epsom salts in drinking water, a cooked mash and 
plent}- of green food, and milk to drink will be helpful. 

Hepatitis, or Inflammation and Hypertrophy of Liver. Cause: Un- 
balanced ration, excess of protein in diet, feeding one kind of food. ' 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Symptoms: Inflammation of the liver, loss of appetite, sluggishness, 
yellowish color to the skin, liver enlarged, tender, and engorged with 
blood. 

. Treatment: Epsom salts in drinking water, one pound to 100 fowls, 
together with an equal quantity of bicarbonate of soda. Give a balanced 
ration and compel exercise. 

Jaundice. Cause: Overfeeding, lack of exercise, decayed or tainted 
food. 

Symptoms: Excessive formation of bile which is absorbed into the 
blood, giving yellowish color to comb and wattles. 

Treatment: One teaspoonful of Epsom salts, good sanitation and 
balanced ration. 

Fatty Degeneration of the Liver. Cause: Ration too rich, resulting 
in a deposit of fat in the liver tissue. 

Symptoms: Similar to hypertrophy of the liver and it is believed 
to be a stage of that disease. 

Treatment: Encourage exercise, give green food and more variety 
in the ration. 

Leg Weakness. Cause: Improper feeding, growth of flesh out of 
proportion to the bone development, lack of exercise. Board and cement 
floors are unfavorable. 

Symptoms: Leg weakness is the loss of control of the muscles 
of the legs. There is weakness and the chick sits down to eat; this is 
followed by loss of appetite. 

Treatment: Give less carbohydrate and more protein in the feed, 
such as meat scrap, granulated bone and milk. 

Soft Shelled Egg. Cause: It may be due to a lack of lime or the 
fowl may be too fat or there may be inflammation of the oviduct. 

Treatment: Give plenty of charcoal and grit and green feed. A 
balanced ration and exercise will cure the disease. 

VII. Affections produced by parasites 

1. External animal parasites cause such affections as emaciation, 
anemia, feather-pulling, scaly leg. See Chapter XIII. 

2. Internal animal parasites. 

Emaciation. There are three species of round worms that seriously 
affect poultry. 

Ascaris inflexa is about two inches long and is generally found in 
the fore part of the small intestine. It is yellowish white in color. 

Heterakis perspicillum attains a length of two and one-half inches. 
It is yellowish white and is found in all parts of the intestinal tract. 
Sometimes it causes constipation by obstructing the course of the food. 

Heterakis papillosa is a very small white worm from one-third to 
three-fourths of an inch long and may be found in any part of the 
digestive tract, more especially in the ceca, where it accumulates in 
great numbers. It is believed to be instrumental in inciting the disease 
among turkeys known as black-head. All these worms produce emacia- 
tion and if unchecked result in death. Blindness, limberneck, epilepsy, 
and emaciation are some of the symptoms. 

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Treatment: Use one pound of Epsom salts, one pound of sulphur 
and one-half pound of pulverized copperas, mix carefully, and feed one 
pound of this mixture in 10 quarts of mash. This should be sufficient 
for 100 to 150 fowls. Repeat this for five days, once a day, and after 
that once a week for three weeks. Keep the feeding place clean and 
well disinfected to prevent the further spread of the infestation. 

Epilepsy. — Tape Worms. The symptoms of epilepsy are trembling, 
jerky movements and convulsions. It is produced by a species of 
tape worm, known as Taenia infundibuliformis. This is about five 
inches long and is found in the intestinal tract, usually near the ceca. 
It burrows into the intestinal wall with its head and the segments 
absorb nourishment from the food in the intestines. The terminal 
segments are filled with eggs. When these break away they are de- 
posited on the ground and picked up by the fowls and thus the infesta- 
tion is spread. 

Treatment: The New Jersey Experiment Station recommends the 
tobacco treatment for worms as follows: "For each 100 birds use one 
pound of finely chopped tobacco stems. Steep in water for two hours 
and use the tea for the moist mash. The regular dry mash will answer 
for making the moist mash, feeding one-half the usual amount. Feed 
lightly during preceding day and nothing at all on the morning of the 
day for treatment. At two o'clock feed the tobacco mash spreading it 
out so that each fowl can get a portion. At four o'clock feed a second 
moist mash of the same quantity as first only add 12 ounces to one 
pound of Epsom salts. Dissolve in water instead of the tobacco 
solution. Repeat the treatment in a week." 

Another treatment for worms is to use one pint of gasoline in the 
mash for 100 birds. 

Worms cause enormous losses. They are responsible for a long 
list of diseases and must be fought persistently. 

Blackhead. Cause: It is produced by an animal parasite known as 
Amoeba meleagridis. 

Symptoms: Circular yellow spots on liver, enlarged ceca plugged 
with cheesy matter, and enlarged liver. Drowsiness, loss of appetite, 
drooping wings and tail, head turning to a dark color, constant diarrhea. 

Treatment: Isolate all infected fowls. Mix sulphur, Epsom salts, 
sulphate of iron and quinine, equal parts of each, in two-grain capsules. 
Two capsules constitute a dose and should be given twice daily. Keep 
sulphate of iron in drinking water and sprinkle sulphate of iron crystals 
in any stagnant pools about yards. Disinfect roosting places, remove 
droppings and sprinkle ground with lime. The success in checking this 
disease will depend on the promptness with which diseased birds are 
isolated and dead birds cremated. Similar treatment should be given 
in case of an epidemic among chickens, one capsule to dose. 

Coccidiosis. Cause: It is produced by an animal parasite known as 
Coccidium tenellum. It attacks turkeys, geese and chickens. 

Symptoms: Yellow diarrhea, ceca plugged with yellowish pasty 
matter, loss of appetite, drowsiness, head becomes a scarlet red in early 
stages. In geese the kidneys are affected, and the fowls become pros- 
trate, turning upon the back. Emaciation and death result. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Treatment: Isolate affected fowls and disinfect premises. Use two 
per cent solution of creolin, or a strong solution of copperas. Scatter 
lime about the roosting places. Give a teaspoonful of castor oil to 
chickens, and double the dose for turkeys and geese. Follow the oil 
with a capsule of Formiila No. 1. 

Coccidial Diarrhea attacks baby chicks and resembles white diar- 
rhea. A whole brood becomes infected, probably in the incubator. 
Infected broods should be isolated from other chicks. The sick chicks 
should be removed from the brood and destroyed as observed. The 
brooder room should be thoroughly disinfected with a solution of cop- 
peras and fresh litter supplied frequently. A teaspoonful of castor oil 
in a quart of warm m'lk should be given to drink in the forenoon and 
about two grains of copperas in a quart of water in the afternoon. 




Showing full size gape worm. Also section of 
trachea with worms attached 



Air-Sac Mite, Cytodites nudus, crawls through the nostrils and 
attacks the bronchi and air sacs of the body. When present in large 
numbers it produces stupor, emaciation, suffocation and death. The 
infestation will go through a whole flock unless checked. Give sulphur 
in the food and keep the premises disinfected. 

Gapes. The gape worm, Syngamus trachealis, is especially fatal to 
young chicks. The eggs arc obtained from infected soil, from earth 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

worms and by eating the worms coughed up by infested chicks. Tur- 
keys harbor these parasites and communicate them to chicks. 

Symptoms: Gaping, sneezing, coughing, and discharge of mucus. 

Treatment: Remove the chicks to uninfected ground. Disinfect all 
vessels. Cremate all dead chicks. Use permanganate of potash in drink- 
ing water. Scatter lime over infected ground. Spade or plow and 
then give another dressing of lime. Take two horse hairs, tie at ends 
and cut off projecting portions close to knot and insert into the trachea 
through the larynx. Give the hairs a twist and withdraw, removing the 
worms by the operation. 

3. External Vegetable Parasites 

Chicken Pox. The specific germ of chicken pox has not been 
isolated. Some consider it an animal parasite and some a vegetable 
parasite. Some think it is a form of roup. Others consider it a blood 
disease. Small wart-like nodules of a greasy appearance appear on 
comb and face. Eyes become affected and are sometimes destroyed. 
A high fever, thirst and stupor develop. It is estimated that 50 per 
cent of all cases die. 




A case of chicken pox 



Treatment: Disinfect buildings and premises with creolin solution. 
Put sick fowls in comfortable quarters and add a few drops of creolin 
to the drinking water. Give one grain capsule of quinine to each fowl, 
and after removing the scabs from head, apply iodoform-vaseline 
ointment. 

White Comb or Favus is caused by a fungus known as Achorion 
Schonleinii. It attacks the comb or face and occurs first as white 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

powdery scurf or as white patches, sometimes round and sometimes 
irregular in shape. These spread until the whole surface of comb, 
face and wattles is covered and then the disease invades the feathered 
regions of the neck. At first there is no noticeable effect upon health, 
but as the disease progresses the fowl weakens, loses flesh and may die. 
A fowl with favus should never be allowed in the breeding pen. In- 
fected buildings should be disinfected to destroy the spores and supplied 
with fresh litter. 

Treatment: Apply an ointment of iodoform and vaseline, using one- 
half teacup of vaseline and as much iodoform as can be placed upon a 
dime; or apply an ointment of one part of red oxide of mercury to 
eight parts of vaseline. Give a good tonic or a one-grain capsule of 
quinine. Favene is a good proprietary remedy. 

4. Affections Caused by Internal Vegetable Parasites 

Aspergillosis is caused by several species of mold, Aspergillus, the 
more common being Aspergillus fumigatus. The spores of this mold 
occur on straw and grain. 

Symptoms: Fever, rapid respiration, rattling in throat, diarrhea, 
emaciation, spots on liver and patches in mouth. 

Treatment: Disinfect frequently and supply clean litter, free from 
dust and musty odor. Isolate all affected fowls. It is claimed there is 
no cure. Probably the best treatment is tincture of iodine, allowing 
two drops to each fowl. It can be given in a tablespoonful of water. 
Follow up for several days. 

Brooder Pneumonia. Aspergillosis attacks the young chicks causing 
enormous losses. Watch the litter. Keep everything scrupulously 
clean, disinfect frequently, isolate diseased chicks promptly, and use 
the iodine treatment, five drops in a pint of drinking water. 




A case of roup 



Roup is a disease of the respiratory organs. The specific germ pro- 
ducing it has not been discovered. It is very contagious. The eyes, 
nostrils, larynx and trachea are affected. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Symptoms: Swollen eyes, discharge from nostrils, foul odor, stupor, 
emaciation, difficult breathing. Roup entails weakness upon the off- 
spring for several years. Therefore, no fowl that has had roup should 
be used as a breeder. 

Treatment: Isolate all infected fowls promptly. Treat as follows: 
Give permanganate of potash in drinking water. Dip the head of each 
sick fowl in a strong solution of permanganate of potash and on the 
following day apply an ointment of iodoform and vaseline to all parts 
of the head, and give a small quantity internally. An ointment of lard 
and sulphur can be used instead. As a tonic give a one-grain capsule 
of quinine, daily. If there is an accumulation under the eyelids remove 
it carefully. A good method of applying permanganate of potash is to 
force it into the slit in roof of mouth by means of a hand spray. 

Diphtheria is considered an advanced stage of roup. It is sometimes 
called canker. Best authorities believe it is a distinct disease, though 
the earlier symptoms resemble those of roup. It is very contagious. 

Symptoms: Stupor, sleepiness, difficult breathing, head swollen, 
false membrane in mouth and throat, which becomes a thickened yel- 
lowish, cheesy mass, as the disease advances. 

Treatment: Where the disease is far advanced it is well to kill the 
fowl and cremate the body. Isolate promptly, and treat with iodoform 
ointment as advised for roup. Give permanganate of potash in drinking 
water and supply soft food. Give tonic, Formula No. 1, or one-grain 
capsule of quinine. 

Influenza resembles a severe cold or a mild epidemic of roup. It is 
probably caused by a specific germ. 

Symptoms: The same as a cold and accompanied with diarrhea. 

Treatment: Isolate sick birds, give a dose of Epsom salts and follow 
this with a one-grain capsule of quinine. 

Thrush is a fungus disease attacking the oesophagus, the specific 
fungus being Saccharomyces albicans. 

Symptoms: Violent convulsions. White patches in the oesophagus, 
and sometimes in mouth. 

Treatment: Wash the mouth with a 10 per cent solution of borate 
of soda and give a good tonic. 

Pneumonia generally follows congestion of the lungs. The serum 
of the blood escapes through the capillary walls, and coagulates in the 
air spaces. The disease is undoubtedly caused by a specific germ. 

Symptoms: Ruffled plumage, dark comb, rapid respiration, loss of 
appetite. 

Treatment: Avoid exposure by removing sick birds to a warm room. 
Use 10 drops of aconite and bryonia in each pint of drinking water. 
Give soft nourishing food, a little at a time. 

Tuberculosis. Cause: This destructive disease is caused by a spe- 
cific germ, Bacillus tuberculosis. The organs usually affected are the 
liver, spleen, intestines, mesentery, and occasionally the lungs. It is 
transmitted by means of infected birds and animals. It is believed 
that the specific germ which produces this disease in man is the same 
as that of birds and mammals, the different types, human, bovine, and 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

avian tuberculosis, being due to environmental adaptation. Nevertheless 
these types are transferable. A fowl eats the sputum of a human tuber- 
cular patient, contracts the disease and dies. A rat eats the fowl, and 
also contracts the disease and dies. A hog eats the rat, and becomes 
diseased. Further the rat contaminates food of human beings and farm 
animals and in that way communicates disease. A human being drinks 
the milk of a tubercular cow and in that way becomes infected. Thus 
the vicious circle is continued. It is an endless chain. English spar- 
rows, without doubt, are instrumental in communicating this disease. 
It is evident that it will be a hopeless task to eradicate tuberculosis 
unless radical measures are taken to destroy the cause. We need clinics 
on the farm. There should be state-wide campaigns against vermin 
which harbor and spread the plague. 

Symptoms: Lameness, pale comb, emaciation, bright eye, good ap- 
petite, tubercles or raised nodules on liver, spleen, intestines, or mesen- 
tery. A post mortem examination always should be made. 

Treatment: Destroy the entire flock, or if the disease appears to be 
restricted to a few birds, kill all that are emaciated, and isolate all the 
others, giving each fowl two drops of tincture of iodine daily in drink- 
ing water. Tincture of iodine is used effectively in incipient cases of 
human tuberculosis and should give favorable results with fowls. 
Renovate and disinfect the buildings and premises, and keep a close 
watch for new cases. 

Infectious Leukaemia is a blood disease produced by a specific germ 
known as Bacterium sanguinarium. There is noted a decrease in the 
red corpuscles and an increase in the white corpuscles. 

Symptoms: Increased temperature, drowsiness; the heart, intestines 
and blood are pale. An increased number of leucocytes. 

Treatment: Improved sanitation and a tonic as recommended in 
formula No. 2. (Page 27.) 

Sleeping disease is an affection of the blood caused by a germ 
known as Streptococcus capsulatus gallinarum. 

Symptoms: Sleepiness, lameness, swollen eyes, pale comb. 
Treatment: Improved sanitary conditions, and give a good tonic. 

Vent Gleet, or Cloacitis, is an inflammation of the cloaca, probably 
produced by a specific germ. It is infectious, being transferred from 
one fowl to another in copulation. 

Symptoms: Inflammation of cloaca, white diarrhea, inflamed skin 
around the vent, foul odor. 

Treatment: Cut away the feathers around the vent and wash with 
a one per cent solution of creolin. Then make a swab by wrapping 
cotton around the end of a stick, cover this with iodoform ointment 
and swab out the cloaca. One treatment will probably effect a cure. 
Keep the sick birds in dry comfortable quarters. 

Bacillary White Diarrhea is a disease of chicks produced by a spe- 
cific germ, Bacterium pullorum. A hen that has had white diarrhea in 
its early life will transmit the disease through the egg to the chick. 
The germs of the disease become localized in the ovary, and when the 
yolks develop the bacteria become incorporated in the egg and are thus 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

communicated to the embryo during incubation. Only a few of the 
chicks that hatch may have this disease, but it is quickly communicated 
to the remainder of the brood. The contagion spreads through droppings. 

Symptoms: Stupor, rough feathers, emaciation, loss of appetite, 
whitish discharge, pasting up behind, sharp cries from chicks, and they 
act as if chilled, and keep close to the hover. 

Treatment: Begin with foundation stock and cull out all weaklings. 
Dip eggs in alcohol, thoroughly scrub and disinfect the incubator, using 
four per cent solution of creolin. When chicks are hatching darken 
the incubator so they cannot pick at the droppings. Remove from the 
brooder any chicks that show signs of the disease. This must be done 
very promptly and the chicks should be destroyed and their bodies 
burned. Keep the feeding floor scrupulously clean and scald all vessels. 
Add to the milk and water for all chicks of an infected brood about five 
drops of creolin and one teaspoonful of Epsom salts to each quart of 
fluid. Good sanitation may prevent the spread of the disease, but there 
is little hope of cure when it has reached an advanced stage. 

Bacterial Enteritis or Mixed Infection is an inflammation of the 
small intestine and is often of bacterial origin. It may be caused by 
toxic poisons produced by worms, or from eating paint skins, salty 
meat, or other poisons. If it is produced by infection, due to filthy 
conditions and tainted food, the cause must be removed. It is then 
known as bacterial enteritis. 

Symptoms: Diarrhea, loss of appetite, comb pale to dark. 

Treatment: Disinfect. Give each sick bird a teaspoonful of Epsom 
salts and follow with a good tonic. Give one pound of Epsom salts to 
100 fowls in drinking water. After which give permanganate of potash 
in drinking water as long as the disease persists. 

.This disease is a true mixed infection, as several species of bacteria are 
known to contribute to its existence in the flock. 

Dysentery is a bacterial inflammation of the large intestine. 

Symptoms: Diarrhea, the discharges often being bloody. There is 
loss of appetite and drowsiness. 

Treatment: The same as for enteritis. 

Cholera is a contagious disease produced by a minute bacterium, 
Bacillus avisepticus. The disease spreads rapidly and is fatal in most 
cases. The bacteria are found in the blood of infected fowls. 

Symptoms: The urates which are normally white assume a yellow- 
ish tinge; afterwards the droppings become a bright yellow and in the 
final stages turn to a bright green. There is drowsiness, ruffled feathers, 
loss of appetite, thirst, fever and pale face and comb. An autopsy 
shows inflammation of the digestive organs, kidneys, and mesentery. 

Treatment: Renovate and disinfect buildings and yards frequently. 
Remove and promptly destroy all infected birds. As a general treat- 
ment for the flock give one teaspoonful of creolin in three gallons of 
drinking water. Epsom salts should be given once a week until the 
disease disappears. If sick birds are to be treated, give creolin in 
drinking water as advised and tonic No. 1 (page 26). Remember that 
this is a highly contagious and incurable disease and all infected birds 
should be far removed from the healthy flock. 

[193] 



Chapter XV 

The Poultry Account 



DOES poultry pay? Very few are able to answer in the 
affirmative, or at least answer' the question "How much 
does it pay?" because no record is kept and no balance struck 
at the end of the year. A poultry account book will help 
answer the question. The method here proposed requires an 
inventory at the beginning of the year and at the beginning of 
each quarterly period thereafter, viz., January 1, April 1, July 
1, and October 1. A summary is also required at the end of 
each quarter, also an annual summary at the end of the year. 
The latter will show just what the poultry business has done 
during the year, and the quarterly summary will show the 
profit or loss during the preceding quarter. 

Schedules 

The schedules outlined in this chapter can be copied into a 
book of convenient size, and the system can be used as success- 
fully as if a book with printed forms were available. They are 
based on the requirements of the income tax schedule and 
cover the following topics : Inventories, Income, Expenses, 
Quarterly Summary, Annual Summary, Daily Egg Record, 
Incubation Record, Losses, and Orders. 

Inventory 

At the beginning of each quarter a count should be made 
of all stock and products on hand. The number and quantity 
of each should be entered in the proper column as shown in 
Schedule No. 1. In determining the amount to be used in the 
"value" column it is advised to use the average market value 
of stock in the preceding year. If an inflated value is used, 
and losses occur during the quarter or year, then the summary 
will make a false showing. Under present, 1921, conditions 
the following prices seem fair and safe; $1.50 each for cocks 
and cockerels ; $1 for hens and pullets ; $5 for toms ; $3 for 
turkey hens; $1 for ducks; $4 for geese; and 50 cents each for 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

guinea fowl. In the case of eggs the average market value for 
the quarter is advised. Whatever prices are adopted for stock, 
these should be retained through the whole year. If a change 
is made with every variation in the market more or less con- 
fusion will result. The quarterly inventory will take care of all 
losses during the quarter at the average price, for, when the 
inventory is taken, it will not include any dead fowls, and, 
therefore, the "value" column will show a deduction accord- 
ingly. Buildings and equipment may or may not be considered 
in the quarterly inventory. They are taken care of in the 
annual inventory, and their repair and depreciation count as 
deductions in estimating the final status of the business. The 
inventory for the first day of any year or month will be the 
same as for the last day of preceding year or month. Why 
make a quarterly inventory? Because it enables the poultry- 
man to keep in close touch with his business and brings him 
face to face with losses and leaks. It stimulates an interest 
in the poultry end of the farm enterprise and furnishes an ex- 
hibit of the condition of the farm flock. Why should the 
poultryman wait till the end of the year to discover whether 
he is playing a winning or a losing game? The quarterly 
summary tells the tale. If losses have occurred he will dis- 
cover them and can plan to avoid them in the future. 

Income 

The American hen should be given credit for all she pro- 
duces. It is not fair to make all sorts of demands upon the 
products of the industry without giving due credit for every 
item of production. This means that due credit should be 
given for all sales of stock and products, all eggs and stock 
used for household or given away, all eggs used for incubation, 
and all feathers and fertilizer sold or used in garden or field. 
If credit is given for eggs used for incubation they should be 
estimated at market price, and it is advised to place only a 
nominal value (not full value) on the under-month chicks at 
hand when the inventory is made. The price of the egg has 
gone into the chick. If the value of the egg is five cents and 
there is a 50 per cent hatch, the egg-cost of each chick is 10 
cents. But its real value is not less than 20 cents. Probably, 
therefore, 10 cents is a fair estimate of the value of a baby 
chick for the inventory in case credit is given for the eggs used 
in incubation. In one month, however, this value has increased 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

to 20 cents, in two months to 35 cents, and in three months to 
50 cents. At three months it is well past the danger point 
and has reached a marketable age. If you give the hen credit 
for all she produces, then you can know definitely whether 
the industry is worth while. 

Expenses 

The first cost of buildings and permanent equipment should 
not be entered in the expense account. It would hardly be fair 
to charge against the income of any one year the cost price 
of buildings, fences, incubators, brooders, and other major 
equipment having a long life-period. This is charged off in 
the annual inventor)- as depreciation, the percentage of de- 
preciation being determined by the life-period of the equip- 
ment. Minor equipment, such as water founts, feeders, crates 
etc., which usually last only two or three years, should be 
charged off as an expense at the time of purchase and therefore 
no depreciation should be entered against them. Purchased 
labor should be entered as an expense, but the operator's labor 
may or may not be counted as an item of expense. If not. 
his wage will be represented in the net income at the close 
of the year. If desired, however, he can keep a labor record of 
the number of hours actually expended on the poultry enter- 
prise, and, charging a reasonable rate per hour, he can enter 
this labor as an expense in the annual summary. 

Keeping Feed Costs 

In determining the amount of home-grown feed consumed 
in a given period it is a good plan to weigh or measure the 
daily ration of such feeds for several days and from these 
data make an estimate of the average daily amount consumed. 
Knowing this, the amount consumed for the month or quarter 
is easily determined. This estimate will be sufficiently accu- 
rate for all practical purposes. To be strictly accurate it will 
be necessary to weigh or measure the home-grown feeds 
every day, or they can be weighed in bulk and kept separate 
from the feeds of other livestock on the farm. In the Expense 
Schedule, No. Ill, there is a line for totals. These totals are 
determined by adding together all the expense items. When 
the totals are all brought to this line it is simply a matter of 
addition to determine the total expense for the quarter. The 
same rule applies to the schedule for incomes, No. II. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Quarterly Summary 

When the gross income and total expenses for the quarter 
have been determined and the inventory for the end of the 
quarter has been taken, then, by using Schedule No. IV, it is 
a simple matter to determine the quarterly gain or the quar- 
terly loss as the case may be. 

Annual Summary 

The status of the year's business is determined by using 
Schedule No. V. The total of all quarterly net losses de- 
ducted from the total of all quarterly net gains (incomes) 
should give the net income for the year. But there may be 
other receipts than those included in the quarterly schedule, 
viz., from insurance, sales of equipment, show premiums, etc., 
and these should be added to the total of quarterly net incomes. 

So, also, there may be added to the total of quarterly net 
losses all repairs and depreciation of buildings and other items 
of expense not included in the quarterly schedules, such as 
interest on borrowed money, taxes, insurance, etc. A separate 
list of these expenses should be made and entered elsewhere 
in the record under Schedule XII. 

An annual summary based on the requirement of the in- 
come tax schedule should be made as outlined in Schedule 
No. V. The data for this summary can be obtained from the 
statements of income and expenses as found in Schedules 
No. II, No. Ill, No. IV, No. X, No. XI and No. XII. 

Daily Egg Record 

Schedule No. VI is used to make a record of all eggs 
gathered and disposed of each day. The eggs may be gathered 
from separate j>ens or from the general flock, or both. They 
may be given away, devoted to table use, sold on the market, 
used for incubation, or used to fill orders. This record will 
be of great value if faithfully and accurately made. 

Incubation Record 

A record of eggs set is of value for reference. From this 
record it is possible to determine the date of hatching, the 
value of the eggs used in incubation, the fertility of the eggs, 
and the age of a chick when it has reached maturitv. Refer to 
Schedule No. VII. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 
Losses 

Schedule No. VIII is used for recording all losses that 
occur. It is advisable to keep such a list, even though these 
losses are taken care of in the inventory. It will be a silent 
reminder of the disappearance of profits. 

Orders 

A record of all orders received will save many a heartache. 
The record should be as complete as possible and should in- 
clude the following data : Date received, name and address of 
purchaser, shipping station, items ordered, conditions, price, 
date paid, and date shipped. Refer to Schedule No. IX. 

Depreciation 

The percentage of depreciation is determined by the life- 
period of the building or equipment. A building with stone or 
concrete foundation and shingle roof will have a life period 
of 40 years. The depreciation on the first cost should be 2^4 
per cent annually. If the building sits upon the ground and 
has a paper roof its life-period is reduced to 20 years. The 
depreciation should be 5 per cent. All major equipment 
should receive a depreciation of 10. per cent. In all cases, de- 
preciation should be estimated on the original cost, else the 
building will become perpetual and the cost will never be 
charged off. Schedule No. XIII shows the method of record- 
ing depreciation. 

Sundry Schedules 

Schedule No. X is for recording all purchases made of stock 
and eggs. 

Schedule No. XI shows a record of all miscellaneous in- 
come not included in Schedule II. 

Schedule No. XII gives a record of all miscellaneous ex- 
penses not included in Schedule III. 

These items are repairs, insurance, interest, taxes, show 
expenses, etc. 

A few pages set apart for memoranda will not come amiss 

Value of the System 

The use of the system recommended in this chapter will 
be found practical and comprehensive. It is a matter of great 
satisfaction to know just what any farm enterprise has ac- 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

complished. The annual summary tells the tale, but this 
cannot be made unless the entries are made faithfully through- 
out the year. On the average farm one minute each day or 
ten minutes at the end of each week will be sufficient to make 
all entries. Complete the records at the end of each quarter 
and make out the quarterly summary, then at the end of the 
year it will be a small task to prepare the annual summary. 
Try it. You will be pleased with the knowledge acquired and 
probably surprised that the outcome is so favorable. 

A Few Things to Remember 

1. Failure to keep an account is to conduct the business 
on a guess. 

2. A system of accounting shows up the strong points and 
the weak points of the poultry enterprise. 

3. To give the poultry a square deal requires that credit be 
given for every item of production. Thirty-five per cent of 
poultry products are consumed on the farm and the hen should 
have due credit. 

4. It is the waste that eats the profits. Every pound of feed 
represents an outlay and should be turned into finished pro- 
ducts, and every egg should be conserved. 

5. The poultry account reveals losses, discovers profits, 
warns of danger, points out the safe course, and stimulates 
to highest endeavor. 



199] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 



Schedule No. I — Inventory 



On Hand 
Jan. 1 



On Hand 
April 1 



On Hand 
July 1 



On Hand 
October 1 



Items 



Buildings:— 

Laying and Breeding Houses. . 

Incubator House 

Brooder House 

Colony Houses 

Conditioning House 

Supply House 

Other Buildings 

Major Equipment:— 

Fencing 

Incubators 

Brooders 

Grain Sprouters 

Cabinets 

Heating and Lighting Systems 

Office Supplies 

Other Items 

Feeds and Supplies:— 

Grain 

Mill Feeds 

Concentrates 

Green Feeds 

Oyster Shell 

Grit and Charcoal 

Other Supplies 

STOCK 
Chickens:— 

Cocks 

Hens 

Cockerels 

Pullets 

Chicks 

Eggs 

Turkeys:— 

Toms 

Hens 

Poults 

Eggs 

Ducks:— 

Drakes 

Ducks 

Ducklings 

Eggs 

Geese:— 

Ganders 

Geese 

Goslings 

Eggs 

Other Fowls:— 

Feathers and Fertilizer:— 

Totals 



[200] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 



Schedule No. II — Income 



Date 


Fowls: All 


varieties 


, Adult and Young 




Eggs 






Number 

and kind 

sold 


Amount 


Number 
and kind 
consumed 
and given 


Value 


Number 
and kind 
sold 


Amount 


Number 
and kind 
consumed, 
incubated, 
given 


Value 




















Totals: 

















Schedule No. Ill — Expenses 



Date 


Feeds 


Supplies 


Minor 
Equipment 


Labor 




Amount 
and kind 
purchased 


Cost 


Amount 
and kind 
home- 
grown 
feeds used 


Value 


Amount 
and kind 
purchased 


Cost 


No. 
and 

kind 


Cost 


Time 


Cost 
























Totals: 





















Schedule No. IV — Quarterly Summary 



Quarter Ending 

Gross income for quarter 

Inventory value at end of quarter 

A = Total income plus Inventory 

Total expense for quarter 

Inventory value at beginning of quarter . 

B = Expenses plus Inventory 

A-B = Net gains for quarter 

B-A=Net loss for quarter 



[201 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 



Schedule No. V — Annual Summary 



For the Year Ending 

1. —Inventory of stock and products. End of Year $ 

2. — Sales of stock and products during year — Schedule II 

3. — Stock and products given away and used — -Schedule No. II . . 

4. — Miscellaneous receipts — see Schedule No. XI 

5.— Total: Items 1, 2, 3 and 4 

6. — Inventory of stock and products, beginning of year 

7. — Cost of stock and eggs purchased during year— Schedule X. . 

8. — Total: Items 6 and 7 

9.— Gross profits for year; Item 5, less item 8= 

EXPENSES 

10. — Expenses (Schedule III), not including item 7 $ 

11. — Repairs of fences, buildings and major equipment— Schedule 
XII 

12. — Depreciation of fences, buildings and equipment — Schedule 
XIII 

13. — Other expenses not included above 

14. — Total expenses: Items 10, 11, 12 and 13 

Net Income or Profit for Year: Item 9, less item 14. . . . 

Loss for Year: Item 14, less item 9 = 



Schedule No. VI— Monthly Egg Record 



Eggs Gathered 


Eggs Disposed of 


Day 


Pen 1 


Pen 2 


Pen 3 


Pen 4 


Pen 5 


Flock 


Eggs sold 


Eggs used 


Eggs set 


No. 


Price 


No. 


Value 


No. 


Value 


2 
3 

to 

31 


























Totals: 



























[202] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 
Schedule No. VII — Incubation Record 

Quarter Ending 19 . 



Date 


No. 


Hen or in- 
cubator 


Location 


Number 
and vari- 
ety of eggs 


Value 


Fertil- 
ity 


Hatch 
















Totals: 

















Schedule No. VIII— Losses 

Year 



Date 


Adult Stock 


Young Stock 


Other Losses 






No. and kind 


Value 


No. and kind 


Value 


Items 


Value 












































Totals: 















Miscellaneous Schedules 

Schedule No. IX— Orders 

Quarter Ending , 19 



ORDERS RECEIVED AND FILLED 



Rec'd. 

Ship'd. 



Name and address 
Shipping station 



Items orderea 
Conditions 



Price 
Date paid 



Schedule No. X — Purchases 

Year Ending i 19_ 

PURCHASES 



Date 


Stock Purchased 


Eggs Purchased 




No. and variety 


Cost 


No. and variety- 


Cost 












Totals: 











[203; 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 



Schedule No. XI — Miscellaneous Income 

Ykar Ending 19 . 



Items 


Data 


Total 








Sale of equipment 




















Totals 











Schedule No. XII — Miscellaneous Expenses 



Repairs 

Insurance 

Interest 

Taxes 

Show expenses . 
Other expenses. 




Totals. 



Schedule No. XIII — Depreciation 

Year Ending Dec. 31. 19 . 



Items 


First 
Cost 


Probable 
Life 


Rate of 
Depreciation 


Amount of 

Depreciation 


Age 


Value at 
End of 
Year 


Laying and Breeding 
Houses 

Incubator House 














Colony House 

Etc 




Totals 















[204] 



Chapter XVI 

Sundry Topics 



I 



N our final chapter there are sundry topics that remain for 
consideration. 



Duck Raising 

The duck industry is one of growing proportions. On 
Long Island there are about 40 duck farms and the annual 
output in ducklings is more than 350,000. The Pekin duck 
has preference above all others for market purposes. Duck- 
lings are sold at ten to twelve weeks of age, when their average 
weight is about six pounds. 

The Pekin lays from 100 to 140 eggs in a season. Eggs for 
hatching are always in demand. Eggs can be hatched either 
with a hen or in an incubator. Successful incubation depends 
upon an even temperature with adequate moisture and venti- 
lation. 

Ducklings should not be fed for 36 hours after hatching. 
They can then be started on stale bread, hard boiled egg, milk 
and sharp sand, making a crumbly mash. After the fourth 
day from hatching, feed a mash as follows : 

Bran 3 parts 

Wheat. Middlings 2 parts 

Corn meal 3 parts 

Meat scrap 5 parts 

Sand or grit 2 parts 

Green feed 5 parts 

These ingredients are determined by measure and should 
be made into a moist mash and fed four times a day. Water 
must be supplied in abundance. During the winter season the 
breeding stock should be fed whole grains and should have 
access to grit and water. 

Ducks very rarely become sick and for that reason are 
easily raised. Some of the more common diseases are cholera, 
coccidiosis, enteritis and worms. 

Feathers are of considerable value. Unless the producer 
is skilled in plucking, it will be more profitable to ship alive 
than to dress for market. 

[205] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOO'K 




Toulouse Geese 



Raising Geese 

Geese are profitable for flesh, eggs and feathers. A goose 
lays about 40 eggs in a season. When they are sold for hatch- 
ing the price averages about 50 cents each. Incubation is 
usually accomplished by a chicken hen, which makes a good 
mother and brooder for the goslings until they are able to 
shift for themselves. For the first two weeks the goslings 
should be fed a mash of equal parts of corn meal, bran and 
wheat middlings, and about ten per cent of meat scrap with 
coarse sand for grit. They should have range for green feed 
from the beginning, and after they are old enough to forage 
they will need but little feeding, as grass and weeds make the 
bulk of their ration. An abundance of water is always neces- 
sary. Geese and chickens do not thrive well together on 
account of the unclean habits of the former and their 
pugnacious disposition. Many a choice cockerel has suffered 
a broken limb or ugly rents in the skin because of their vicious 
nature. If kept in separate runs or fed on separate grounds 
some of the objections might disappear. 

It is very difficult, if not impossible, to detect the sex of 
goslings. When mature, however, it is found that the gander 
has a sharp, shrill voice, while the goose has a coarse, heavy 
voice. The male has a heavier, longer neck, and a larger head. 

[2061 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

During the breeding season the gander can be detected by his 
actions. Another method is to use slight pressure upon the 
sphincter muscle in the region of the anus, when the sexual 
organs will be everted. 

Geese very seldom succumb to disease, but occasionally are 
afflicted with cholera, coccidiosis, gout, rheumatism, or liver 
disease. > 

The feathers of geese are very valuable, commanding about 
SO cents per pound. It is not a common practice, nor is it 
usually safe, to pluck geese alive. In dressing for market they 
should be plucked dry, and the fine feathers are always saved. 
There is little demand for the coarse feathers. 

The leading varieties are the Toulouse and the Embden. 

In fattening for market, ground corn, bran and 10 per cent 
of meat scrap make a good fattening ration. Geese should be 
mated in the fall. The loss of a mate is followed by a season 
of grief. A new mate is not always kindly received. 

Turkey Culture 

Turkey culture is both interesting and profitable. Eggs 
for hatching, feathers, and market birds are always in demand. 
Eggs for hatching sell for 30 cents to $1 each. Market birds for 
Thanksgiving and the holidays command from 30 to 50 cents 
per pound. 

In mating turkeys it is customary to introduce new blood 
every other year. This is a good policy if care is exercised in 
selecting stock that is free from any taint of disease. Two 
toms should be provided, even for a small flock, one yearling 
torn and one young torn. The unexpected frequently happens, 
and the loss of a torn during the breeding season is not easily 
replaced. Yearling hens make the best breeders, but it is 
always advisable to keep as many well matured pullets as 
hens. In-breeding is considered harmful to vigor and vitality. 
By using old toms with pullets and young toms with hens I 
maintained a flock of turkeys for nearly ten years without the 
introduction of new blood and could not observe any decline 
in vigor or size. 

The mating season in the northern states usually begins 
in March, and the hens begin laying early in April. One copu- 
lation fertilizes all the eggs of a clutch. A turkey hen lays 
about 40 eggs in a season, if not allowed to sit, in three 
clutches — 18 eggs in the first clutch, 12 in the second, and 10 

[207] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

in the third. Eggs laid early in the spring should be gathered 
daily to prevent chilling. Suitable nests should be provided 
in barrels, boxes or brush piles, and if hens can be induced to 
begin laying at home there will be little danger of their roam- 
ing to find nests. 

The turkey hen makes the best incubator and brooder. It 
is customary to hatch the first laid eggs under a chicken hen. 
In that event the poults should receive the same care and feed 
as chicks. As soon as a turkey hen hatches a brood, the hen- 
hatched poults can be transferred to the turkey mother. If 



l £h 


ft 


t 


L >v 'J 




tr 





This will keep her from flying the fence 



the weather is damp and cold at the time a brood of poults is 
taken off, it is best to confine the turkey mother in a coop for 
a few days. The coop should have an outside runway to give 
the poults opportunity for exercise and to obtain green food. 
Rolled oats, fed sparingly, three to five times a day, makes a 
good starter. This, with sweet milk and sharp sand for grit, 
will be all that is needed for the first week. After a week of con- 
finement the hen with her brood can be given free range. They 
can be taught to come home for food and shelter each night, 
and as a rule this is advisable. Turkeys and chickens should 
not be fed on the same ground. In the first place, the turkeys 
are likely to infect the ground with gape worms ; and, in the 

[208 J 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

second place, they are in danger of becoming infected with 
certain diseases, such as coccidiosis, from the chickens. 

In fattening turkeys for market it is customary to feed a 
mixture of grains, such as corn, wheat, and oats. If fed an 
excess of new corn, diarrhea is likely to occur, and this may 
lead to serious disease. If not shipped alive, turkeys should 
be dry-picked, plumped by plunging into cold water, and 
shipped undrawn. 

The diseases which attack turkeys are cholera, blackhead, 
coccidiosis, limberneck, chicken pox, roup and intestinal 
worms. The treatment of these diseases is given in Chapter 
XIV. 

Guinea Fowl 

The number of guinea fowl on farms on Jan. 1, 1920, was 
2,410,421, and the value of these was $1,582,313. 

The system of feeding guineas resembles that of chickens, 
but they eat less food. Bread crumbs and hard-boiled egg 
make a good feed for the guinea chicks. 

It is about as difficult to determine the sex of guineas as 
of geese. The male has a longer helmet and wattles and 
coarser features. The cry of the female resembles the word 
"buck-wheat," while that of the male is a one-syllable shriek. 

Quoting from Farmers' Bulletin, No. 858: 

"Guinea fowl are growing in favor as a substitute for game 
birds, with the result that guinea raising is becoming more 
profitable. 

"They are raised usually in small flocks on general farms, 
and need a large range for best results. 

"Domesticated guinea fowl are of three varieties : Pearl, 
White and Lavender, of which the Pearl is by far the most 
popular. Guinea fowl have a tendency to mate in pairs, but 
one male may be mated successfully with three or four females. 

"Guinea hens usually begin to lay in April or May and will 
lay 20 to 30 eggs before becoming broody. If not allowed to 
sit they will continue to lay throughout the summer, laying 
from 40 to 60 or more eggs. Eggs may be removed from the 
nest when the guinea hen is not sitting, but two or more eggs 
must be left in the nest. 

"Ordinary hens are used commonly to hatch and rear guinea 
chicks. The period of incubation is 28 days. Guineas are 
marketed late in the summer, when they weigh one to one and 

[209] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

one-half pounds at about two and one-half months of age, and 
also throughout the fall when the demand is for heavier birds." 

Judging 

There are two methods of judging, by score-card and by 
comparison. The score-card is usually used in the smaller 
shows and is a source of information to the breeder. If his 
bird is disqualified or cut in any section he knows the fact 
and generally the reason why. 

The comparison method teaches him nothing, except that 
he was a loser or that he won a ribbon, unless perchance he 
should meet the judge who may take the pains to point out 
the defects in his birds. There is a strong tendency to drift 
away from the score-card, even in the smaller shows, on 
account of the excessive amount of work that is entailed upon 
the judge and secretary of the show. As an educational pro- 
gram for the new beginner comparison judging is of little, 
value. He neither learns why he lost or why his competitor 
won. 

Exhibiting 

Every farmer with a pure-bred flock will be benefited by 
entering a few birds at the county fair or in the local poultry 
show. A knowledge of the weak points is worth while, as it 
may incite to greater endeavor. 

Conditioning for the show requires considerable attention. 

The show specimens should be caught and cooped several 
days before entry. The legs and feet should be cleaned by 
washing with soap and water. Use a stiff brush. Rinse and 
dry and then with a toothpick or a sharpened stick remove all 
dirt from under the scales. Then apply an ointment of glycer- 
ine and alcohol, half and half. A numbered leg band should be 
attached to the right foot below the spike. Examine each 
specimen for disqualifications. White specimens should be 
washed. First wet the feathers to the skin with tepid water, 
then apply soap, working it into the feathers ; then rinse and 
use soap again. The second rinsing should be carefully done 
so as to remove every trace of soap. Dry in a warm room and 
allow the specimen to cool gradually to prevent catching cold. 

After the birds have been returned from the show they 
should be kept in quarantine for a week or ten days to detect 

J 210.1 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 





MALE HEAD? $H0WIM DEFECTIVE 

1 THUMB MARK. 2. LOPPED (£IN6LE). 3. HOLLOW CENTER. 

4. £1DE $PBIG- 5 UliEVEN /SE2£ATI0rp 6. TWfiTED. 

the appearance of any diseases that may have been contracted 
in the show room. 

Be a good loser and a grateful winner. 

The Poultry Show. The poultry show has done more than 
any other institution, except the American Poultry Associ- 
ation, to perpetuate an interest in pure-bred poultry. It should 
be encouraged in every community. In selecting a place to 
exhibit the worth of his birds, the breeder should not neglect 
the local show. If victorious there, and he would have other 
fields to conquer, he should not forget the annual show of his 
State Poultry Association. This is his own organization and 
he should take advantage of the opportunities it proffers. 

State Poultry Association. The State Association is affili- 
ated with the American Poultry Association and it is also 
fostered by the State. Membership in this organization is 
always welcomed and should be counted a privilege and duty 
by every breeder. 

f2111 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Poultry Schools. There are several well organized and 
high-grade poultry schools in the United States. They are 
sponsored by capable and well-trained experts, and no mistake 
can be made in enrolling for a special course of study in one of 
these schools. It is knowledge that counts, and its application 
makes for success. Ignorance is the way of failure, 

The Farm Bureau. This organization seeks to foster every 
farm enterprise. It is accomplishing much good along poultry 
lines. Get in touch with your farm adviser and he will gladly 
help solve some of your poultry problems. 

State and University experiment stations are accomplish- 
ing a work for poultry culture equal to that of any other 
agency. 

Egg Laying Contests. These are being conducted in some 
states under the direction of the State Poultry Association. 
Sometimes they are fostered by the state or by the state ex- 
periment station, again by private enterprise. The facts dis- 
covered and presented to the world by these contests have 
given a great impetus to the industry. These facts bear upon 
the problems of feeding, breeding, culling and production and 
enter into the practical problems that are met on the farm. 

Poultry publications. The farm paper and poultry journals 
are the means of disseminating knowledge. They are working 
continually for better poultry and more of it. To remove these 
potent influences for good would be to set back the industry 
for many years. 

The Poultry Calendar 

January. This is the month of severe cold. Every pre- 
caution should be taken that the fowls receive proper pro- 
tection. On severe days they should be confined to the poultry 
house. 

Mate up the fowls that are intended for flock-breeding and 
give them special care. They should not have a forcing ration, 
should not be overcrowded, should not be kept under artificial 
lights, should be compelled to exercise for their food. 

Clean up and disinfect the poultry house, replenish nesting 
material and litter in the scratch rooms. 

Make an inventory of stock and equipment. 

Begin a systematic method of poultry accounting. See 
Chapter XV. 

Get the incubator ready for early hatching. 

[212] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

February. The egg yield is now increasing rapidly. A few 
of the breeding stock hens may become broody, but if early 
hatched pullets are desired, the incubator is the main reliance. 
Set the incubator early in February. 

Clean up and disinfect the poultry house, supplying new 
litter and nest material. 

Go over the breeding pens and breeding flock carefully to 
detect and remove any birds lacking in vigor. 

Get the brooder house and brooder ready for the forth- 
coming hatch. If artificial lights are used and there is more 
than a 50 per cent yield, the lights should be reduced. 

Gather eggs twice daily in severe weather. 

Fatten and market all capons held over. 

March. Clean up and disinfect the poultry building, sup- 
plying fresh litter. 

Spray roosts and nests with some good lice killer. Dust 
the fresh nesting material with insect powder. 

Give the laying flock and the breeding flock a thorough 
culling. Condition and ship to market all culls. This is the 
month of high prices for market stock. 

Carefully examine the breeders and replace any male birds 
that are lacking in vigor or that fail to produce fertile eggs. 

Prepare chick rations for the coming broods. 

Bring the poultry account down to date and prepare the 
quarterly summary. 

April. This is the busy month. Incubators, sitting hens, 
and tender chicks require constant attention. 

Clean up and disinfect all coops and buildings. 

Put on a vigorous campaign against lice and mites. 
Thorough work now will save future trouble. 

Plant mangel-wurzels, beets, carrots, cabbage, turnips and 
other vegetables to supply the winter ration of green feed. 

May. Clean and disinfect buildings and coops. 

Clean, disinfect and put away the incubators, as the season 
for profitable incubation has passed. 

All eggs set this month should be placed under hens. Hens 
should be protected from lice and mites and provided with 
new nesting material as required. 

Provide shade for the chicks. Give the flock free range. 

Give special attention to the chicks. Keep their quarters 
clean and free from drafts. Protect from enemies by closing 
them up at night and keeping the hen confined in the day time. 

[213] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

June. Clean and disinfect all buildings and coops. 

Break up sitting hens by putting them in a strange lot or 
room without nests or in a breaking coop. 

Produce infertile eggs for market by separating all males 
from the hens. The undesirable males should be shipped to 
market but those that are to be kept over may be kept in a 
separate lot. 

Cull the three-months-old chicks. The surplus cockerels 
can be caponized or shipped as broilers. 

Care should be used in culling the hens, as some of the 
best layers may be taking a rest or be broody. There are 
always some that cannot be profitably retained, and these 
should go to market. 

Do not forget shade for the growing chicks. 

Provide a mash for the summer layers. See Ration No. VII. 

Bring the poultry account down to date and prepare the 
quarterly summary. 

July. This is usually the hottest month and growing 
chicks and fowls must have protection from the intense heat. 
The orchard or corn field makes a fine shady run for the chicks. 
Artificial shade should be provided where necessary. 

Remove all young stock to colony houses or to permanent 
roosting quarters. 

Provide a dry mash and green feed for the young stock. 

Clean and disinfect all buildings, also the brooders, storing 
them for future use. 

Avoid overcrowding of young stock. 

Liberal feeding is recommended for this month to promote 
growth and vigor and fortify against weather conditions. 

August. Clean and disinfect all buildings. Supply roosts 
for young stock; caponize surplus cockerels; avoid overcrowd- 
ing; protect against weather changes; store eggs for the time 
of scarcity. 

September. Clean and disinfect all buildings and grounds 
as far as possible. Sprinkle slaked lime on ground, plow or 
spade, then supply another coat of lime. Later sprinkle on the 
ground a strong solution of copperas. 

Cull the whole flock and, after conditioning, ship the culls 
to market. Fatten surplus young stock for roasters. 

Make the quarterly inventory, bring the poultry account 
down to date, and prepare the quarterly summary. This is 
done at the end of month. 

[214] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Provide a suitable mash for the molting hens, Ration IX. 

October. Clean and disinfect all buildings, and make all 
necessary repairs for the winter season. 

Watch out for colds. Keep the young stock from crowding 
and becoming overheated, afterwards to become chilled by the 
cold morning air. 

Put all stock in winter quarters. 

Watch closely for the occurrence of disease and take 
prompt measures to prevent the spread of any epidemic. 




Self-feeder for dry mash 



November. The best layers will molt in November and 
October. The molting ration should be continued until the 
molt is practically finished. 

Make all changes in rations gradually. 

Do not force for egg production pullets that are not 
matured. 

Clean and disinfect all buildings and provide fresh nesting 
material. 

Dispose of surplus breeders. 

Matured pullets should be put on a laying ration. 

December. Clean and disinfect all buildings. 

Select breeding stock for special pens and for the breeding 
flock. Arrange to keep these in separate quarters so that they 
may have special care in feeding. 

Bring the poultry account down to date and prepare the 
quarterly and annual summaries. 

Cull the flock and ship surplus stock to market. 

[215] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Postscript 

Our task is finished. It is a big subject. At the best we 
have only skirmished along the outskirts of a few fields, as yet 
but partially explored. We have written little that is new, but 
have drawn from practical experience wherever possible. To 
the army of investigators who have blazed the way in many 
fields belongs the credit for the accumulated facts pertaining 
to the industry. We have gathered a few data with the avowed 
object of being helpful to the farmer and the fancier. That 
there are errors is freely admitted. Poultry writings have 
many contradictions. Some must be in error, yet each has 
given his contribution toward the attainment of an exact 
science. 

A last word. W T hat is the most important factor in the 
poultry problem? What word expresses the condition which, 
probably more than any other, conserves the health of the 
flock, determines its productiveness, and contributes to the 
profit of the industry? Is it not "cleanliness"? And next to 
cleanliness is "exercise". 



216 



Appendix 



THE following pages are devoted to articles reprinted from 
Prairie Farmer. The stories of farm success with poul- 
try are particularly interesting as examples of what other 
farmers are actually doing to make the poultry flock add 
substantially to the farm income. 

When to Market Poultry 

THE chart on Page 218 portrays the usual seasonal changes 
in chicken prices. The lines represent five-year averages by 
months, using the prices to producers in the United States as 
estimated by the Department of Agriculture in one case and 
Chicago prices for spring chickens and hens for the other two 
lines. 

Up to the end of April, the quotations on springers at Chi- 
cago are upon chickens hatched in the previous spring. Begin- 
ning with May such chickens are counted as hens and stags 
and the springers or broilers quoted are from the new hatch. 
Since few are hatched in winter and extremely early spring 
these spring chickens are very scarce in May, June and July 
so that they bring a big premium over the general run. The 
premium is gradually lost as such birds become more abun- 
dant and quotations upon them in late fall and winter are 
practically the same as upon hens. During March the spring- 
ers have sold higher than hens, although the reason for this 
is not clear, especially as they seem to sell again in the same 
notch during April. 

It is noticeable that the prices of both springers and hens 
decline on the average during the late summer and fall to the 
lowest point of the year in November when receipts are largest. 
Holiday demand which develops late in November and is 
prominent in December causes December prices to average 
materially higher than November. Hens reach their highest 
point as a rule in April when they are laying heavily and are 
kept back on farms. From this point prices decline as sup- 
plies become more abundant. June shows up as a month of 
low prices for hens partly because of the fact that they are in 

[217] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 
SEASONAL CHANGES IN CHICKEN PRICES 1 




PRICE 
IN CENTS 
PER POUND 
34 



JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC 



The Chicago prices are quotations at wholesale for live hens and spring chickens. 
Note that spring chickens are highest in May and decline rapidly during the 
summer to the low point in November, after which there is an advance during 
the winter months. Up to the end of April the spring chickens quoted are those 
hatched in the previous season. Hence the very sharp advance from April to May 
when the new hatch is quoted. Hens reach the highest point in April during the 
laying season. Thereafter they are marketed in larger numbers and June prices 
usually are low. Another decline takes place in the fall due partly to the abundance 
of spring chickens. Beginning in September and continuing through most of the 
winter hens and spring chickens fluctuate together. 

Prices to producers are averages for the entire United States. They show 
less marked changes from month to month and are highest during the late summer 
and early fall months. They also seem to behave differently from Chicago prices. 



poor condition when marketed immediately after the laying- 
season. 

The prices to producers shown are averages made up by 
the Department of Agriculture from the statements of a num- 
ber of country buyers located throughout the United States 

[2181 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 



PRICES PAID TO PRODUCERS FOR LIVE CHICKENS 


PRICE 

pet» 

POUND 

*2d* 


J4N. 


FEB. 


MAR. 


APR. 


MAY 


JUNE 


JULY 


AUG. 


SEPT 


OCT. 


NOV. 


DEC 


JAN. 






















































16* 












1<>30 
















14-4 








s 




















11* 




























io* 




























18* 




























16* 




























14* 






10^ 


E££ 


^2 


5RA< 


iE 


1910 




l9X9i 
















11* 





























The prices to producers shown on the chart above are averages for the entire 
United States based on the reports for the first of the month. They are highest 
during the summer months. Note that the ten year average line is similar in its 
course to the five year average on the other chart. Prices in 1919 and in 1920 
are similar to each other in their behavior and somewhat similar to the average 
for ten years except that they are on a much higher level. 



who report the prices paid at country buying points. The 
curve for these prices is not consistent with the curve for 
Chicago prices for reasons not entirely apparent. Prices to 
producers have averaged highest during late summer and 
early fall and are lowest during the winter and early spring 
months. 

To sell best on the open market poultry should arrive from 
Tuesday to Friday. Demand usually is light on Monday and 
on Saturday prices are often reduced so as to effect a clearance 
and avoid holding stock over till Monday. 



[219] 



Poultry Marketing Experience 

MANY Prairie Farmer readers have added materially to 
their poultry income by finding markets for their poultry 
and eggs which pay more than they can secure by selling to 
the village storekeeper or huckster. One Illinois farm woman, 
for example, netted 60 cents per dozen by shipping eggs to a 
New York commission house when eggs were bringing but 
40 cents at home. 

The increased returns on that transaction were 50 per cent, 
but the increased profit was much more. The cost of pro- 
ducing those eggs was 36 cents, according to figures kept 
by this woman. The profit was four cents per dozen when the 
eggs were sold locally, while the other method of marketing 
gave her a profit of 24 cents. 

This case is not unusual. Rather, it is typical of what 
may be done by any farm poultry raiser in the Corn Belt. 
The margin is not always as much as in the case indicated, 
but on the other hand it is often much more. The margin 
secured from improved marketing may increase substantially 
the poultry profit, or it may mean the difference between a 
good profit and a discouraging loss. 

In the December 3, 1921, issue of Prairie Farmer readers 
who have found methods of increasing their revenue from 
poultry by better methods of marketing were asked to write 
us their experiences. The letters received indicate that there 
are no less than 10 practical plans which may be followed by 
those who want better prices for their poultry products. They 
are : 

1. Selling eggs to private customers. 

2. Selling eggs to city markets. 

3. Selling eggs for hatching. 

4. Selling eggs to hatcheries. 

5. Producing late fall and winter eggs. 

6. Selling early fries. 

7. Selling baby chicks. 

8. Selling dressed poultry. 

9. Shipping live poultry to city markets. 

10. Selling cockerels and pullets for breeding purposes. 
High prices for poultry and eggs mean that the quality 
must be first-class. The Chicago man who pays a ten-cent 

[220] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

premium for fresh eggs from the country will refuse to pay- 
that premium if the eggs are not strictly fresh, clean, uniform 
in size, and first-class in every way. Live poultry won't com- 
mand the top prices if it isn't fat, and dressed poultry must be 
fat, clean and attractive in order to bring a high price. Quality 
goes hand in hand with better methods of marketing, but in no 
product is it more important than poultry and eggs. 

Private Customers 

Many farm women have secured better than market prices 
by selling eggs to private customers. In small towns the 
margin paid over store prices is often not more than two or 
three cents per dozen. The development of the parcel post 
has extended the private customer field to distant cities, and 
with the city trade has come a much better premium over the 
local egg markets. 

Mrs. Chas. Plondke of Grant county, Wis., charges private 
customers five cents more per dozen than the local market, 
and the customer pays all expense of shipping the eggs and 
returning the empty cases. 

Mrs. Clara Elfrink of Cook county, 111., has 14 customers in 
Chicago who pay a premium of several cents per dozen for 
eggs. "We got our first customer nine years ago through the 
Chicago postoffice, and the others were friends of the first 
customers," she writes. "We ship in egg cartons, using the 
two, three, and four dozen sizes, according to the customer's 
needs. We ship mostly by parcel post, but occasionally send 
large shipments by express. We are only 30 miles from Chi- 
cago, and in good weather our customers often drive out for 
their eggs, dressed poultry, vegetables and fruit. When we ship, 
the customers pay the postage and insurance. We have had 
no trouble in regard to pay, as all have been prompt." 

Mrs. Otto Schulz of McHenry county, 111., ships eggs in 
12-dozen crates to Chicago families, several families dividing 
a case when one can't use that many eggs. "I have followed 
this plan for three years and am well pleased," she writes. 
"I get a couple of cents above market price, and my customers 
pay the parcel post charges. I am also selling dressed geese, 
ducks, young roosters and feathers to the same customers, 
charging less than they can buy them for and at the same time 
giving me more than I could secure at the butcher's or the store. 
Chicago people are glad to pay well for fresh eggs and poultry." 

[221] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Another plan is followed by Mrs. C. D. Finkbeiner of Lena- 
wee county, Mich., who lives 50 miles or so from Detroit. 
Many automobile parties go past the farm, and a "Fresh eggs'* 
sign stops enough automobiles to enable Mrs. Finkbeiner to 
sell all the surplus eggs except in the hatching season. 

It is not difficult to make connections with city families 
who will pay a good premium for quality eggs shipped by 
parcel post. Most people have friends and relatives in cities, 
and that should enable them to get started shipping eggs. One 
satisfied customer brings another. In the larger cities the post- 
offices have lists of city people who want parcels post eggs. 
Cartons for shipping can be secured from supply houses, and 
may be secured at almost any store. Bills should be rendered 
the first of every month. 

Shipping to Commission Houses 

Shipping eggs to commission houses in the larger cities, as 
New York and Chicago, is a plan which nets a good premium 
over the local market. C. H. Poland of Montgomery county, 
111., in 1921, shipped all the surplus eggs from his 265 hens to 
a New York commission house and secured $185 more for them 
than his home market would pay. 

A Missouri woman reports that her first shipment to New 
York netted 22 cents per dozen more than she could have 
secured at home, and that on the nine cases she shipped she 
netted $37.50 over local prices. These were all white eggs, 
which bring a good premium over other colors on the New 
York and Boston markets. 

Mrs. Ed. Fulford of Jackson county, 111., reports much 
higher prices secured in St. Louis than she could obtain at 
local stores. "I use a 12-dozen case and ship by insured 
parcel post," she says. "It costs 35 cents to send it when full 
and eight cents when empty. The eggs sell higher than at 
home and I can use the cash any place instead of taking what 
I can get, as I do at home. I ship the eggs one morning, get 
the check the next morning and the empty cases the following 
day." 

Another who has found it profitable to ship to city markets 
is Merle Naugle of White county, Ind. "On November 22 
I received $24.09 net for a 30-dozen case in New York, and the 
price here was $16.50," she says. "These were uniform white 
eggs which are higher than any others. In spring and summer 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

it does not pay as well to ship east, so I sell to a man in Chicago 
who pays 14 cents over local prices." 

The important things to remember in shipping to com- 
mission companies are to send uniform good-quality eggs, and 
to pick out a reliable commission man. There are some com- 
mission houses which are not trustworthy, but they are being 
rapidly weeded out by the state commission merchant laws. 
The premium over local prices is rather small from March to 
June, but the rest of the year it is considerable. 

Eggs for Hatching 

Those with well-selected purebred flocks (not necessarily 
fancy) find a profitable market as a rule in selling eggs for 
hatching purposes. This is true of all the common breeds like 
Leghorns, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds and Plymouth 
Rocks. Mrs. Lee E. McElroy of Shelby county, 111., whose 
experience is typical of many, last year sold eggs for hatching 
at $1.50 per 15, selling all the extra eggs in that way from 
March till June. "The best answer to the question of better 
marketing of poultry is better poultry," she says. "No matter 
what market you sell to, purebreds return a good profit over 
scrubs." 

Mrs. Frank Myers of Henderson county, 111., began 10 
years ago with a flock of Barred Rocks. "I culled my flock 
and bought the best stock I could afford," she writes. "By 
1919 I thought my flock was good enough to advertise eggs 
for sale. Ads in Prairie Farmer and a local paper cost $10.09 
in all. Baskets cost $2.70. Excelsior was free at the store, 
and flour sacks made the covers. I sold $92.50 worth of eggs. 
They were worth $48.30 at the store, advertising and other 
costs amounted to $13.40, so I had for my trouble $31.01. 
Since then I have advertised eggs, baby chicks and cockerels, 
Prairie Farmer and a local paper doing the work." 

It is not difficult to secure $1 to $1.50 per sitting of eggs 
from well-selected hens, and eggs from flocks somewhat fancier 
than on most farms bring considerably higher prices. The 
expense is very small, and the returns usually are more than 
ample to pay for the time and trouble. 

Eggs to Hatcheries 

Since the rapid growth of the baby chick business, many 
farm poultry raisers with purebred flocks find that the baby 
chick hatcheries provide an excellent market for eggs. This 

[223] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

plan eliminates many of the costs involved in selling hatching 
eggs, though it does not bring the returns which the other 
plan does. Mrs. Win. A. Klein of Putnam county, 111., has 
been selling Barred Rock eggs to a nearby hatchery, receiving 
several cents per dozen above market price. Another who has 
followed this practice is Mrs. Wm. M. Rhine of Montgomery 
county, 111., who received five cents each for the eggs. 

This plan offers considerable possibility to those who are 
near to hatcheries, and those whose flock is not large enough 
to justify advertising the eggs for sale. It is doubtful, however, 
if the hatchery trade is worth going after if one has a good 
flock for which a reputation is already established. 

Producing Winter Eggs 

Egg prices are always much higher from October until the 
last of January than at any other season. The farm poultry 
raiser who has learned the trick of making the hens lay in this 
"off" season gets ample reward in liberal egg checks. It is at 
this season, that city trade will pay the largest premium for 
fresh eggs, due to the difficulty of securing them and to the 
storage eggs that reach the market then. 

The essential points in securing eggs in the months of high 
prices are proper feeding, proper housing and a productive 
flock. Complete discussion of this matter will be found 
elsewhere in this volume. 

Selling Baby Chicks 

The baby chick business is pretty strongly established, and 
offers a fine chance of financial reward to the person who has 
the right knack and patience. "I sold 900 Wyandotte baby 
chicks last spring at 15 cents apiece," says Mrs. W. H. Rigsby 
of Christian county, 111. "They are easy to dispose of. Good, 
lively, healthy chicks are easily sold about as fast as they can 
be hatched." 

Mrs. Arthur Heap of Kendall county, 111., sold 843 baby 
chicks at 15 cents last spring, besides hatching 1,050 chicks 
for her own flock. "I sell them the day they are hatched, and 
there is very little risk," she writes. "I am satisfied that there 
is more money in the baby chick business than in any other 
branch of the poultry industry." 

The baby chick business calls for a healthy purebred flock, 
and if managed on a modest scale does not call for any extra 

[224] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

equipment. It is easily possible for a farm woman to sell 1,000 
or more baby chicks in her immediate neighborhood without 
much expense. That sort of a business must be built up from 
a smaller beginning. The commercial baby chick business 
cannot be undertaken as a sideline to farming, but should 
be regarded as a highly specialized industry by itself. 

Selling Early Fries 

During the late spring and early summer months, young 
fries command high prices as a rule, especially if they are fat 
and plump. Mrs. Heap reports receiving 49 cents per pound 
for ten-week-old fries which averaged two pounds apiece. 
Others kept until they weighed five pounds apiece late in the 
fall were sold for 19 cents per pound or 95 cents each. The 
early chickens thus brought three cents apiece more and 
required less than half the feed and work. 

"We sell most of our cockerels about July 1 as broilers," 
writes Mrs. Finkbeiner. "They then weigh two pounds each 
and command the highest prices of the year. To get them to 
that age we feed sour milk, cracked corn, oatmeal and bran." 

Mrs. Wm. Klein of Putnam county, 111., sold early fries the 
latter part of May that weighed two pounds and a quarter. 
Later when the price dropped below 35 cents, she quit selling, 
caponized the cockerels and sold the capons late in the fall for 
a fancy price. "There is practically no extra work in this 
plan," she writes, "and it is a very profitable marketing plan." 

The early fry requires early hatching, and feeding for rapid 
gains, and if large numbers are produced a special market. 

Selling Dressed Poultry 

Some poultry raisers have gone a step further and elimi- 
nated the butcher by selling dressed poultry. "I believe that 
this is the best way to make extra money from poultry," says 
Mrs. B. C. Lawhead of Champaign county, 111. "I make a 
profit of about 10 cents per pound on the average, for dressing 
the chickens. Before Thanksgiving, ducks were 22 cents alive 
and 30 cents dressed, geese 18 cents alive and 33 cents dressed. 
I cleared over $1 per goose and 35 cents per duck by dressing." 

The experience of Mrs. Louis Bernhard of Effingham 
county, 111., is similar. "Two weeks before Christmas we 
dressed 82 turkeys, averaging 15 pounds, for which we received 
49 cents net after shipping to New York. We would have 

[225] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

received 34 cents at our local stores. Thirty-five late turkeys 
were sold in February for 63 cents dressed (local price 34 
cents). On these 117 turkeys we made $270 above local prices, 
after paying all expenses including- shrinkage." 

Mrs. Schulz, who has Chicago customers for eggs, finds that 
these same people like to get dressed chickens, ducks and geese 
for which they pay premiums over the market. 

The dressed poultry trade is one which can be operated on 
as large or as small a scale as desired. The principal points 
to be remembered are to deliver the dressed poultry fresh and 
to use only fat, plump fowls. 

Shipping Live Poultry 

Shipping live poultry is largely a matter of finding a com- 
mission man who will handle the shipments properly and 
honestly— which is much less difficult than is generally sup- 
posed. In every large city there are many commission mer- 
chants who make a specialty of handling not only live poultry 
but also dressed poultry, veal, eggs, produce and a variety 
of other things. The net amount received after commission 
charges, express and other costs are paid is usually much 
higher than what could have been secured at local markets. 
Prairie Farmer will help you find a reliable commission man, 
if you wish our assistance. 

The Brown County (111.) Farm Bureau began in August 
1921 to make cooperative shipments of poultry in connection 
with the livestock shipping association. The shipments were 
sent to city markets, and the proceeds, less than the trans- 
portation and commission, paid to the producers. Within a 
few months, 100,000 pounds had been handled, for which more 
than $6,000 above local prices were secured — an average of 
more than six cents per pound. 

The Purebred Market 

S. M. Phelps of Warren county, 111., tells of a small poultry 
flock from which he made sales of cockerels and pullets of more 
than $100 per year for seven years — a record which is equalled 
by many other farm poultry raisers. The average return from 
this kind of marketing is from 50 to 100 per cent higher than 
selling on the market. 

Anyone with a good flock can sell a number of cockerels in 
the home community without much effort, and as the flock 

[226] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

becomes better established and more widely known the market 
for good cockerels is enlarged. There is not so much chance to 
selt pullets to the farm trade, as most people find it cheaper to 
buy eggs and hatch their own pullets. 

These statements do not refer to the breeders with fancy 
strains. The business of producing the fancy strains of poultry 
is a specialized industry by itself and hardly comes under a 
discussion of marketing of farm poultry. 

The methods described in this article are those found 
practical by farmers and farm women who run their poultry 
business purely as a sideline, though any sideline to be profit- 
able must be efficiently handled. The improved methods of 
marketing poultry and eggs which are described here help 
promote that efficiency and make possible profits where losses 
existed „ before, and make greater profits where there were 
small profits. 

The man who wins in any branch of farming during the 
years following the war will be the one who farms most 
efficiently. And one of the chief factors in efficient farming 
is marketing products to the best advantage. 



No Eight-Hour Day for Esgar's Hens 

WHEN W. J. Esgar of Grundy county, 111., gets the fire 
built about half past five on a cold winter morning he 
hurries down to the chicken house to call the hens. The way 
he calls them is to turn on the electric lights. Unlike the 
hired man, the hens never turn over in bed for another wink. 
They get off the roosts at once and go after their breakfast 
of sprouted oats and wheat. They get in a good two hours' 
work before daylight, and by the time the late winter dawn is 
waking up chickens who go by sun time, Esgar's hens have 
their crops full and are ready to go to laying. 

"The value of this extra two hours' work by electric light 
is that the hens have just that much more time to eat, and 
they lay in proportion to the amount of feed they consume," 
says Esgar. "When a hen is eating she is making you money. 
When she is sleeping, especially in the morning with an 
empty crop, she isn't." 

Esgar is a firm believer in poultry as a profitable branch 
of the farm business. He doesn't believe in leaving all the 

[227] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

work to mother, either. He and the five boys are as much 
interested in the poultry flock as mother is, and are always 
ready to lend a hand when there is work to be done around 
the poultry yards. 

As for the actual figures — well, there was a check for 
$145.25 for 130 broilers (10 weeks old) sold last June (1921). 
Egg receipts for 1920 were $216.50, and about as many eggs 
were used at home as were sold. 

Keeping Egg Records 

Esgar has been using trap nests for 12 years. The trap 
nest is a nest with a little trap door in front that closes when 
the hen goes in to lay. She has to stay there until she is let 
out, when she is credited with her egg. 

"No, it isn't so very much trouble," says Esgar. "We put 
numbered leg bands on the pullets, and after that it isn't much 
work to open the nests and put down the records. It is the 
only sure way to build up a heavy-laying strain." 

He showed me some of the records and we added up a few 
of them. One pullet laid 92 eggs from Jan. 19 to May 23, 
1921 — 124 days. At that rate her year's record will be well 
over 200 eggs. Hens like this are mated with roosters from 
high-producing strains. Esgar paid $15 last spring for a 
rooster whose mother had a record of 300 eggs a year. 

The results of this work are rapid improvement of the 
laying ability of the flock. In June, 1921, the egg production 
was 90 to 100 eggs a day from 125 hens. Esgar has so much 
confidence in the laying ability of his birds that he recently 
sent a pen to Murphysboro to compete in the state egg-laying 
contest. 

Hens Lay When Eggs are High 

"Trap nesting adds greatly to the interest in poultry 
raising," says Mrs. Esgar. "We have all taken much more 
interest in the flock since we began keeping laying records." 

Esgar's winter laying flock consists of about 150 hens and 
pullets — mostly pullets. They are usually getting well under 
way by the first of November, when eggs are getting up 
toward the high point of the year. Most of his flock are 
Rhode Island Reds, though he is experimenting with Rhode 
Island Whites. 

"We start the incubators in February so as to sell the 
cockerels for early broilers," says Esgar. "This spring we 
sold them at 40 to 55 cents a pound when they were 10 weeks 

[228] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 




This is Billy Esgar and one of his roosters 



old. They averaged over two pounds and brought a little 
over a dollar apiece. The chief difficulty with early hatching 
is that the pullets mature so early that they are likely to 
molt the first year, which spoils the November laying. We 
can usually prevent that, however, by shutting off the feed 
after the cockerels are marketed, letting the pullets range for 
a living. That checks their development and in most cases 
prevents molting the first year." 

Esgar has a large winter laying house with an open front. 
It did not cost much, but it is as warm and comfortable as 
the most expensive house built. The only openings are in 
front. The open front gives plenty of ventilation without 
drafts. 

The winter bill of fare is as follows : 

Morning — Whole oats scattered in the litter. 

Noon — Sprouted oats and whole wheat. 

Night — Cracked corn scattered in the litter. 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

As additional green feed the hens get all the mangels 
they want. Self-feeders are kept full of a dry mash of equal 
parts of bran, ground oats and ground corn, with 10 per cent 
by weight of tankage. The hens also get all the skim milk 
and water they want to drink, and oyster shell and charcoal 
are kept before them all the time. 

The laying hens are kept in the house all winter. 

"They won't lay if they have wet or cold feet," says Esgar. 
"A few hours walking around in the snow, or even on frosty 
ground, will cut the egg production severely." 

The floor of the house is covered with dry straw, changed 
once a week or so. The dropping boards under the roosts are 
cleaned frequently, and roosts, nests and the house itself are 
disinfected often enough to keep them free from vermin. 

"I don't know of any branch of farming that beats the 
poultry business, good years and bad years alike," Esgar says. 



Chester Married the Right Girl 

WHEN Chester Winsor came back from a year's heavy 
action in France he found that he had a still harder 
fight before him. Like many other farmer boys who gave 
their service to the cause of liberty, he started farming when 
everything was high, and was pretty thoroughly deflated by 
the time the bills came due. 

But Chester married a girl who believes that a farmer's 
wife should be his partner in every sense of the word. While 
Chester is plowing corn and making hay on his 80-acre rented 
farm in Grundy county, 111., she is raising chickens and 
hunting eggs. 

What Do You Think of This? 

While I was eating some of her fried chicken one day not 
long ago she got out her account book and figured up her 
poultry income. During the 10 months from Dec. 1, 1920, to 
Oct. 1, 1921, her cash receipts from poultry and eggs were 
$801.47. The actual cash expense was $125. This poultry 
income, which has been a mighty big help during the deflation 
year, was all from market stuff. Although Mrs. Winsor has 
a flock of purebred Rhode Island Reds, the poultry and eggs 
are sold on the market and not to the purebred trade. 

[230] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

The first essential to success with poultry, particularly 
in winter egg production, is a good poultry house. This is 
one of the obstacles in the way of a tenant farmer who starts 
out to increase his income by the poultry route. Chester 
Winsor solves this problem in a way that is open to almost 
any tenant farmer. He started with an old shed that was of 
little value. With a few dollars' worth of second-hand lumber 
he made it into a very good substitute for a high-priced poultry 
house. The completed building is about 20 feet deep, with 
an open front scratching shed to the south, and windows 
above where the scratching shed joins the main building to 
let sunlight on to the roosts. The outside of the building 
was covered with brown building paper and painted with tar 
paint. The completed house is good for several years, and 
is as warm and comfortable as any laying hen could ask for. 
A month or two of winter eggs will pay the entire cost. 

Dirt Floor O. K. 
The house is large enough for 100 hens, which is about 
the size of the winter laying flock. It has a dirt floor, which 
is as good as any, Chester says, if it is kept dry. A trench 
around the outside of the house carries away the surface water. 
The floor is kept well bedded with dry straw. The front of 
the house is open, covered only with wire netting. "It might 
be an advantage to have curtains to let down in zero weather," 
Chester says. "I haven't felt the need of them yet, however. 
There are no side or rear openings, so there is never any 
draft, and in the rear, where the fowls roost, it is always warm." 

The Bill of Fare 

Mrs. Winsor uses a prepared dry mash for her laying 
hens, and a prepared chick feed for the small chickens. The 
rest of the ration is home-grown feed — skim milk, corn, wheat, 
with sprouted oats and mangels for green feed. 

"One of the biggest elements of success in the poultry 
business is a healthy flock." says Mrs. Winsor. "Proper care 
and feeding, and a poultry house that is free from drafts and 
vermin, are necessary to good health. I have a neighbor whose 
poultry crop is almost a failure this year in spite of good care. 
The trouble is low vitality caused by a siege of roup in the 
breeding flock last winter. She would have been money ahead 
if she had sold the whole flock last spring and bought baby 
chicks or hatching eggs." 

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PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Mrs. Winsor says there is no reason why any other 
tenant farmer's wife cannot do as well with poultry as she 
has done. All it takes is the knowledge of a few fundamental 
facts about care and feeding-, plus a willingness to put that 
knowledge into practice, plus a hubby willing to spend a little 
spare time fixing up a poultry house. And if the farm woman 
can show a cash income from her flock like that secured by 
Mrs. Winsor, what husband wouldn't be willing to help her 
now and then? 



Hens Helping to Pay for Farm 

PAYING for a 240-acre Illinois farm is something of an 
undertaking. Ray Coop of Kendall county, 111., realized 
that when he moved to his new farm the first of March, 1921. 
But he is cheered by the thought that he won't have to do 
the job alone. Mrs. Coop is one of the best poultry raisers 
in all Northern Illinois, and she and her chickens are doing 
effective work in helping pay for the farm. 

The hens seem to realize their responsibility, too, for 
they celebrated their first day on the new farm last spring 
by laying 56 eggs. When you stop to consider that there 
were only 99 of them, and that they had been moved several 
miles over rough roads, you will have to admit that they 
started out the new season with a pretty fair day's work. 

Celebrating New Year's 

The year's work really started on New Year's day, how- 
ever, when Mrs. Coop put into effect her resolution to make 
1921 a record-breaking poultry year by setting her incubator. 
The cockerels from that hatch sold as broilers in April at 
72 cents a pound. They paid over $2 a bushel for the corn 
they ate, according to Mrs. Coop. 

When I visited Mrs. Coop Oct. 26, 1921, she had already 
sold over $600 worth of poultry that year and had 50 more 
cockerels shut up ready for market. And that is saying 
nothing about the eggs. The egg checks for January and 
February alone came to $150. So it looks as if Mrs. Coop 
would make good her resolution and exceed her 1920 record 
of $1,000 from her poultry flock. 

[232] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

A Good Business Woman 

A good deal of Mrs. Coop's success is due to the fact that 
she is a good business woman as well as a good poultry raiser. 
She believes in having something to sell when prices are 
good. That is why she raises so many early broilers. When 
eggs went down to 18 cents last spring she stopped selling 
and set her incubator, selling the eggs as baby chicks. A 
little later she went to Joliet and made a contract with a large 
restaurant, which netted her a price at times as high as 15 
cents above the market. 

Her main reliance, however, aside from the early broilers, 
is winter eggs. She has 150 White Wyandotte pullets about 
ready to get under way for a heavy winter's work. 

They have a deep poultry house that gives them plenty 
of room for exercise. The front part is open to let in the fresh 
air. A small yard will be built on the south side so that they 
can get outside when the weather is good. 

The dry mash, which is fed in self-feeders, is bought ready 
made. Everything else is raised on the farm. The hens have 
plenty of skim milk, and this, by the way, is a standard feed 
for most of the successful poultry flocks in Grundy county. 
Instead of giving her hens milk to drink, however, Mrs. Coop 
waits until it is sour and thick before feeding it. 

The scratch feed consists of wheat and cracked corn. 
Sprouted oats furnish the green feed that the hens need to 
keep them in good laying condition. 

Mrs. Coop is an expert poultry culler, and she keeps the 
loafer hens sorted out of the laying flock. 

"I love my hens and enjoy nothing so much as taking care 
of them," says Mrs. Coop enthusiastically, and that enthusiasm 
is one of the secrets of her success. 

But then, who wouldn't be enthusiastic over a flock of hens 
that is doing so much toward paying for the farm ? 



Hens Help Pay the Bills 

VERNE ANDERSON of Grundy county, 111., has eaten 
three square meals a day all summer. He hasn't had to 
go in debt, either, thanks to his flock of hens and his two 
Hampshire sows and his four cows. 

"I didn't know how I was going to make it in October, 
with the hens molting and the cows dry," he told me' one 

[233] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

day the latter part of that month. "But the pullets are begin- 
ning to lay now and the cows are coming in, so it looks like 
a pretty good winter." 

Verne is farming 80 acres, which doesn't raise enough corn 
and oats to make much of an income these days. But when 
you feed that corn and oats to chickens and pigs you have 
another story. 

"Chickens and eggs and butter money came in steadily 
all summer," Verne says, "and it was surely a big help. A 
few hogs now and then helped out, too. I didn't have enough 
of them, but I'm going to have more next year." 

Anderson sold 226 dozen eggs from his flock of 110 white 
Wyandotte hens from Jan. 1 to Apr. 9. During that period 
he used 18 dozen in the incubator, besides eating unrecorded 
dozens. The price of these eggs ranged from 65 cents down 
to 18, most of them bringing 40 to 45 cents. 

The Hen's Menu 

The following is the daily menu of Anderson's flock of 
100 or so laying hens : Eight pounds corn, five pounds oats, 
three pounds middlings, three pounds bran, and iy 2 pounds 
tankage. The middlings, bran and tankage are mixed together 
to form a dry mash. The oats are fed whole and the corn 
cracked ; both are fed in the straw so the hens have to work 
to get them. 

"I like tankage for laying hens," Anderson says. "It is 
just as good as the more expensive beef scrap, and supplies 
the protein and animal matter that the hens need. Some 
farmers rely on skim milk instead of tankage, but my expe- 
rience is that milk will not take the place of tankage. I feed 
some skim milk — from 3 to 3% gallons a day — but even then 
it pays to feed tankage too. 

"You will notice that my ration is made up of cheap feeds, 
mostly produced at home, so my feed bill is small. I don't 
even buy my middlings and bran, but get it from the mill 
when I get my winter's flour ground. I mix my mash feed 
very carefully by weight. I used to do it by guess and found 
it didn't pay. 

Anderson has a modern poultry house 20 by 20 feet, built 
according to plans furnished by the farm bureau. "This 
poultry house alone has much more than paid my farm bureau 
dues," he says. 

[234] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 




Verne Anderson's poultry house 



Comfortable Winter Quarters 

The house is the half monitor type. The scratching shed 
on the south has an open front. Anderson has curtains to 
cover this opening but never uses them. "You can't have 
too much fresh air if you get it without a draft," he says. 

Above the scratching shed, on the south side of the main 
part of the building, are windows which let sunlight in on the 
roosts, and which can be opened for additional ventilation. 
The roosts extend across the back part of the house where 
there is never any draft. Roosts and nests are movable and 
can be taken out for cleaning and disinfection. Just under 
the roosts are dropping boards. The droppings can be easily 
scraped off into a wheelbarrow with a hoe, and the space 
underneath gives that much more room for the fowls to 
move around when they are shut in in bad weather. 

The floor of the house is made of hollow building tile — 
seconds — laid flat and painted on top with a thin coat of 
cement. This makes a relatively cheap floor, rat proof, dry 
and easy to clean. 

The materials for the house cost about $200. Anderson 
did the work of putting it up himself. 

[235] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Keep the Hens Working 

"No one can produce winter eggs without the right kind 
of a poultry house," says Anderson. "A house like mine is 
just right for 100 laying hens. They are comfortable all 
winter, and it is little work to take care of them. Such a 
house will soon pay for itself. I never could see the idea 
of keeping a flock of hens doing nothing all winter when eggs 
are at the highest price of the year. Proper shelter, a little 
care, and the right kind of feed, will keep them working at 
a profit all winter." 

One big advantage of poultry on the farm, according to 
Anderson, is that it provides a steady source of income. With 
poultry and butter money coming in every month it isn't 
necessary to go in debt for running expenses. 

"Poultry properly taken care of is much more than a side 
issue," he says. "It ought to be much more widely appreciated 
as a substantial source of farm income. If it were, there 
wouldn't be so many farmers complaining about hard times. 
A flock of good hens is the best hard times friend a man 
ever had. 



Poultry Pays the Rent 

IF I had a fine poultry house and modern equipment I could 
make money out of poultry, too. 

How many times have you heard that remark? But wish- 
ing will never make the farm flock pay. If you live on a rented 
farm, that is all the more reason why you should make poultry 
add substantially to the farm income, for you need the money 
even more than the man who owns his farm and doesn't have 
to pay rent. 

Let's Go Anyway 

No equipment? 

Well, you remember the story of the railway superintend- 
ent who was on the way to an important meeting when 
he was stopped by a washout. He wired the president: 
"Washout on line. Can't come." 

[236] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

And the president wired back: "Buy a new shirt and 
come anyway." 

So let's go anyway, whether we have everything just as 
we would like or not. 

That's what Mr. and Mrs. G. E. Holoch of Ford county, 
111., did last year, and their cash income from poultry was 
$802.84. They live on a rented farm, too. 

"We do not have anything very up-to-date, but we make 
the best of what we have," says Holoch. "We felt that we 
couldn't afford to sit around and wait until we have everything 
just the way we want it before trying to make money from 
our poultry." 

So they went at it, and made enough from the poultry to 
pay the rent last year. 

How the Hens Are Fed 

The Holochs raise a laying strain of White Wyandottes. 
For breakfast the hens get a hot mash composed of skim- 
milk and water, half and half, thickened with bran and alfalfa 
meal, with a pint of tankage added for each 100 hens. Dry 
oats are fed in the litter for a morning scratch feed, and ear 
corn is fed at night. Oyster shell and bran are kept in self- 
feeders all the time, and the water fountains are supplied 
with warm water. 

They begin to set the incubator and hens the first of 
March. Last spring the egg market was not very satisfactory 
so after they had enough chicks for their own use, they hatched 
1,200 for the neighbors. 

The baby chicks brought $180, other poultry $364.88, and 
eggs $257.96, making a total of $802.84. The cash outlay for 
the year was not over $50. The feed, of course, was raised 
on the farm. It is certain, says Mrs. Holoch, that the grain 
fed to the poultry brought much greater returns than that 
marketed in any other way. 

She says, too, that they are going to raise more poultry than 
ever this year, as they are convinced that there is nothing on 
the farm that pays better. 

The poultry house is an old building, 12x30. In order to 
provide more light to supplement the four small windows they 
cut an opening three by six feet in the south side and covered it 
with a muslin curtain. This curtain provides ventilation, and 
when removed on sunshiny days, lets in lots of sunlight/ 

[237] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Feeding the Chicks 

Mrs. Holoch's baby chick feed is composed of bread crumbs, 
ground corn and bran, mixed with sour milk and a little soda 
and salt and baked. They also get grit, and sour milk and 
fresh water to drink. They are fed nothing until they are 48 
hours old. 

Nothing so very difficult about that, is there? Then why 
not try it on your farm, and give the hens a chance to pay your 
rent for you ? 



How One Farm Woman Markets Poultry 

IT IS necessary to use all the intelligence we have to market 
what we have to sell to the best advantage, says Mrs. W. A. 
McKeever, Ford county, Illinois. This applies especially to 
sidelines such as extra produce, butter, eggs, and poultry. A 
dollar or two here or there means more than it did when prices 
were more nearly fair to the farmer. The easiest way to sell 
most things is to exchange them for groceries or sell to local 
buyers, but it does not bring in the most money. 

The poultry buyer is not just joy riding in his old Ford, nor 
is he gathering up chickens simply to accommodate his cus- 
tomers. He makes his living off the the profit he makes buying 
and selling. He seldom pays half the Chicago price for old 
cocks, nor within from five to 10 cents of the price on other 
stock. Why not ship direct to a reliable firm and make from 
two to five dollars more on a coop? If you do not know any 
reliable firms, ask your farm bureau to recommend one to you. 

If you raise purebred stock, there is little need to sell any- 
thing except culls on the market. There is a good steady de- 
mand for good quality breeding stock at a nice margin of profit 
above market price. The market is always close at hand 
through advertising. Some think it costs too much to ad- 
vertise. If it did not pay why would so many millions be spent 
on it every year? It always pays if you know how to fit your ad 
to your goods. The local paper is an inexpensive medium but 
it is only suitable for handling a small number because of its 
limited circulation. For a considerable number, 20 or more, 
it's hard to beat a good general farm paper with a strong poul- 
try department. 

I usually write out all that seems necessary for describing 
my stuff and then condense it carefully. Some start out "For 

[238] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

Sale." I think that is unnecessary. No one would think you 
were telling the world what you had, just to pass out infor- 
mation. Others use the terms "Full Blood," or worse yet 
"Thoroughbred,"' meaning "Purebred." It is not even neces- 
sary to pay for saying "Purebred." No one advertises scrub or 
grade poultry. 

"Satisfaction Guaranteed" is another catch word that means 
little. If a customer is really dissatisfied, it is best to refund 
purchase price without argument. That's the way big mail 
order houses do, and it is their best advertising point. One 
disgruntled woman can do a lot of talking. I know for I have 
done it myself. When a certain commission firm gave me 25 
pounds shrink on one coop of chickens, I certainly did not keep 
the news to myself, and I always think that my customers may 
be able to talk as much and as fast as I can. Of course no one 
ought to expect a bird that will win sweepstakes at the Na- 
tional Poultry Show for $5 but it is just as well not to promise 
perfection. I always prefer to send something just a little 
better than what is expected, if I can. 

Going back to writing the advertisement it seems better to 
put a price in the first ad. I have tried both ways, and I know 
that an ad with a price in it gets more business. It scares off 
those who would not pay your price anyway, and saves the 
trouble and expense of answering their letters. Finally, a 
good clear letter often helps to finish what the advertising 
starts. A typewritten letter is preferable, and a letterhead also 
adds to the appearance of a letter. Most of your customers 
have only your letter to judge you and your stuff by, and the 
more businesslike it appears, the better impression it will make. 

Timeliness is important in advertising. Most people are 
not ready to buy breeding stock, except hens or pullets, before 
Christmas, though there are always some forehanded enough 
to buy early in the winter so as to get first choice. The sharpest 
demand for cockerels and turkey toms comes in February, but 
I usually start to advertise after Christmas if I have many to 
sell. The heaviest demand for hatching eggs is in April, though 
some orders will come in March and some as late as May. 
Turkey eggs are in demaYid in May and early June. 

Intelligent marketing through careful, consistent advertis- 
ing undoubtedly pays even when poultry is only kept as a side- 
line, as it is on most Corn Belt farms. While the farmer's wife 
with her small flock of farm-bred, range-grown, chickens- can- 
not compete with the professional fancier, she can have the 

[239] 



PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK 

satisfaction that comes through owning- a nice flock, and have 
a few more dollars for Christmas, if she is willing to go to the 
extra trouble of selling her surplus good stock for breeding 
stock, instead of handing it over to the itinerant buyer. She 
cannot do it without some kind of advertising, and the right 
kind is by far the cheapest. Hiding your light under a bushel 
does not pay in these strenuous days. 



Time Switch for Henhouse 

HERE is a simple device for turning on electric lights in the 
poultry house in the morning, so as to get the hens to 
work early. Whenever the alarm goes off, the winding stem 
or key for the alarm begins to revolve and a string wrapped 
around this key or around a spool fastened to it will exert quite 
a strong pull, quite enough to operate the trigger which allows 
the knife switch to be pulled into place. In fact, the alarm 
should be wound only a turn or two so that too strong a pull 




D-244. /f/arm C/ock Time Stv/tch. 



will not be developed and alarm run too long. The arrange- 
ment is shown in the diagram (D-244), S being the single- 
blade knife switch which turns on the feeding pen lights, T is 
the toggle trigger which holds the switch open, W the weight 
or spring which closes the switch, and K the alarm winding 
key with a string which pulls on the trigger when the alarm 
goes off. A trigger and weight are necessary, as the switch 
contacts will be burned unless the switch is closed quickly. 
The trigger should be of the toggle type; that will support the 
weight easily as long as it is straight, but which will double 
down whenever a small side pull is applied near the middle. 
Such a toggle could be made out of an ordinary folding foot 
rule. 

[240] 



Index 



Advertising poultry 157 

Baby chicks, care of 148 

feeding 39-46 

Breeding 95 

female, selecting 110 

foundation stock, selecting 107 

laws of 97 

male, selecting 107 

stock, conditioning. Ill 

marketing 121 

mating 119 

varieties of 100 

cross breeding 100 

in breeding 100 

line breeding 100 

line breeding chart 104 

mongrel breeding 100 

Breeds 

Aleysbury duck 92 

Barred Plymouth Rock 86 

Black Langshan 90 

Bourbon Red turkey 93 

Bronze turkey 93 

Buff Orpington 89 

Campine 91 

Emden goose 93 

Gray Toulouse goose 92 

how to select 79-81 

key to 82-85 

Light Brahma 90 

Mottled Ancona 91 

origin of 86 

Pekin duck 92 

Rhode Island Red 89 

Standard of Perfection .... 82 

value of 86 

which is best ? 79 

White Plymouth Rock .... 87 

White Holland turkey 94 

White Wyandotte 88 

Brooding 137-147 

articifial 147 

rules of 151 

Caponizing 56-58 

Culling 112-118 

score card for 118 



Dressing fowls 54-55 

cleaning 55 

dry plucking 55 

killing 54 

packing 55 

plumping 55 

scalding 55 

Digestion 29 

Diseases, causes and treatment . . 

178-193 

diagnosing 165-175 

key to 176-177-178 

preventing 163 

remedies for 166 

Disinfectants 168 

Duck Raising 205 

breeds of 92 

Eggs, abnormal 63 

color of 66 

composition of 67 

determining fertility of 62 

fertility and fertilization .... 61 

for hatching 138-139 

gathering 72 

grading 70 

how formed 59 

incubating 65 

laying contests 212 

losses of 72 

marketing 

...160-153-154-155-217-220 

origin of 58-59 

preserving 71 

sex of 62 

structure of 60 

size of 65 

specific gravity 65 

shape of 67 

storing 71 

testing 73 

weight of 65 

Electric lights in poultry house227 
Exercise 38 

Factors of success with poultry.. 2 
Farm experience with poultry 

Esgar, W. J 227 

Winsor, Chester • '. . . .230 



[241 



INDEX 



Coop, Mrs. Ray 232 

Anderson, Verne 233 

Holoch, G. E 236 

McKeever, Mrs. W. A 243 

Feathers 74 

uses of 76 

preparing for market 76 

molting 75 

Feeding baby chicks 39-46 

breeding stock 41-50 

during molt 41-50 

for egg production 40-48 

for market 41-51 

methods 38 

principles of 34 

Feeds 

alfalfa meal 24 

ash 23-36 

barley 21 

beets 24 

bone 24 

bran : 21 

buckwheat 21 

charcoal 23 

composition of 30-45 

albumin 31 

ash 32 

carbohydrates 31 

crude fiber 31 

fat 32 

protein 31 

vitamines 32 

condimental 25-26 

cayenne pepper 25 

ginger 26 

iron 25 

mustard 26 

onions 26 

quinine 25 

Venetian red 25 

corn 20 

corn meal 22 

fish scrap 22 

green 24 

grit 35 

how much ? 37 

how used 28 

linseed meal 22 

mangels 24 

meat scrap 22 

middlings 22 

milk 22-36 

millet 21 

milo maize 21 

oats 20 

oats, ground 22 

quality of 37 



rye 21 

salt 23 

supplementary 35 

tankage 22 

wheat 20 

Fowl, circulatory system 12 

digestive system 13 

external parts of 7 

nervous system 17 

other organs 17 

reproductive system 17 

respiratory system 11 

skeleton of 9 



Germicides . . . 
Goose raising 

breeds of . . . 
Guinea raising 



168 

206 

92 

209 



Incubation 137 

artificial 144 

chicks dying in shell 146 

cripples, cause of 146 

how chick hatches 140 

natural 142 

selecting eggs for ... 137-138-139 

Insects, damage from in U. S. . 1 

Losses in poultry raising 4 



Marketing 

baby chicks 156-226 

broilers 156 

capons 156 

culls 156 

dressed poultrv 227 

early fries 227-155 

eggs 160 

direct to consumers. 153-160-223 

for hatching 160-225 

how to ship 155 

to commission houses 

153-154-160-222 

to hatcheries 223 

to local dealers 153-160 

experience in 220 

grades of market eggs .... 158 

live poultry 226 

purebreds 157-156-243-226 

roasters 156 

when are prices highest? 217 

Market poultry types of 56 

broilers 56 

capons 56 

roasters 56 

squabs 56 

Mating farm flock 119 

[242] 



INDEX 



Parasites 169 

bacteria 169 

lice 170 

mites 170-171 

worms 172 

Pests 172 

cats 172 

crows 174 

dogs 173 

hawks 174 

hogs 173 

rats 173 

skunks 173 

sparrows 174 

weasels 173 

Poultry, accounts 194-204 

associations 212 

brood coops ....'. 134 

calendar ... 213 

equipment 136 

houses 122 

colony 134 

essentials 122 

feed rooms 135 

for brooder 133 

for incubator 132 

how to build 127 

types of 126 



judging 210 

lots 131 

manure 77 

publications 212 

schools 212 

statistics 6 

Purebreds, value of 79 

Range of poultry prices 218 

Ration balanced 35 

constructing a 42 

during molting 50 

fattening 51 

for breeding stock 41-50 

for eggs 48 

for growing chicks .... 39-46-47 

nutritive ratio of 43 

Reproduction, science of 96 

Sitting hens, care of 142-143 

Strains of poultry 78 

Tonics 26-27 

Trap nesting 110 

Turkey raising 207 

breeds of 93 

Varieties of poultry 78 



[243] 




Ask William Osburn 

William Osburn, author of this book, writes 
for Prairie Farmer every week. He answers 
questions about poultry feeding, breeding and 
care for Prairie Farmer readers. If you are a 
Prairie Farmer reader you can ask Mr. Osburn 
questions. 

Osburn's Poultry Department in Prairie Farm- 
er is only one of many things you want to 
read in Prairie Farmer every week. The Bus- 
iness and Markets page contains a report of 
the poultry and egg market so that you may 
know how the prices you receive compare 
with Chicago market prices. 

Frequent articles on what other poultry raisers are 
doing are full of suggestions for you. 

If you are not a subscriber send your order now. Tell 
your friends about William Osburn and his practical 
way of keeping chickens. Ask them to subscribe for 
Prairie Farmer with you. 

Subscription rates: 1 year for $1.00; 3 years for $2.00; 
5 years for $3.00. 

Prairie Farmer 

811 Brooks Building Chicago, Illinois 




Selling Your Surplus Poultry 

isn't much of a job if you know just where 
the buyers are and then talk to them. Take 
the case of Ezra Phillips of Ewing, 111. He 
has a large flock with lots of surplus stock 
and eggs to sell but that doesn't worry him. 
He has found that Prairie Farmer reaches 
the people who need his surplus. Here's 
what he writes: 



"In one season I shipped for hatching, 6,500 eggs. 
90% of this business came from Prairie Farmer. 
For the last two years I have not advertised in any 
other paper because Prairie Farmer sells all my sur- 
plus stock. My advice to poultrymen is this: — if you 
want to sell all your surplus stock at the best price 
and least expense — advertise in Prairie Farmer. 

You can benefit by Phillips' experience. When 
you have surplus poultry to sell let Prairie Farmer 
readers know about it. 

Write now for our special poultry advertising rates. 
Address 

Prairie Farmer 

BURRIDGE D. BUTLER, Publisher 

811 Brooks Building Chicago, Illinois 



Here Is Another 
\s*g&\ Prairie Farmer Book 




Frank Mann's Soil Book is a 
brother of Prairie Farmer's 
Poultry Book. The Soil Book 
is just as practical on soils and 
crops as William Osburn's book is on 
poultry. It is similar in binding, large 
type, full of pictures. 

Frank Mann has helped thousands of farm- 
ers increase their crop yields. On his own 
farm he increased his corn 30 bushels, his oats 
40 bushels and his wheat 25 bushels per acre 
as an average of the last eight years. Others 
are following his methods and getting big 
crops, too. 

In the first 88 pages Frank Mann tells 
how he makes his soil more productive. In the 
last 91 pages he tells how he selects crops, 
handles them, harvests them to get big yields. 
Frank Mann's Soil Book is the story of how 
one man won the name 
of "the best farmer in 
Illinois." Send for your 
copy now. $1.00 postpaid. V 




Frank Mann 



Prairie Farmer's Book Bureau 

811 Brooks Bldg. Chicago, Illinois 



